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DOGS OF CHINA & JAPAN 

IN NATURE AND ART 



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DOGS OF CHINA (^ JAPAN 

IN NATURE AND ART 



BY 

V. W. F. COLLIER 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 
FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 



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Printed in Great Britain. 



Siu 



PREFACE 

CHINA and Japan, their people and their customs, have 
lured the foreigner in his thousands to the making of 
many books. No writer, however, has thought fit to 
devote much study to their canine race, though in the Far 
East, just as in Europe, the dog has been for ages man's chief 
help and protector : 

The rich man's guardian and the poor man's friend, 
The only creature faithful to the end.* 

Those who have, in passing, deigned to notice the existence 
of dogs in the Far East have paused only for brief comment, 
usually by way of grasping another stick to beat the Celestial 
for gastronomic eccentricity or superstitious delusions, and 
have given to the Eastern canine races scarcely the proverbial 
" dog's chance " of being considered better than universally 
mongrel. 

It is not claimed for the following pages, whose original 
design included only the smaller races of Eastern dogs, that 
they enumerate all the existing breeds, or that they deal con- 
clusively with any one of them. China alone is a vast country 
in which geographical difficulties render comprehensive study 
difficult. It is hoped, nevertheless, that there has been laid a 
foundation upon which further investigation may be firmly 
based, and that the researches made may assist in the identi- 
fication of new species as well as the preservation of certain 
breeds which, like the St. Bernard in Europe, now run the 
risk of following the Irish wolfhound and the hard-worked 
turnspit dog of our great-grandfathers, to extinction. 

• Inscription on the monument to a Newfoundland dog. Byron. 

V 



PREFACE 

The assistance received from Chinese and Japanese litera- 
ture has been but shght, for though from the earliest days 
Eastern Emperors and their subjects have recognized the 
qualities of the dog — 

in life the firmest friend, 
The first to welcome, foremost to defend, 
Whose honest heart is still his master's own, 
Who labours, fights, lives, breathes for him alone,* 

no Eastern writer has thought fit to devote a volume to study 
of the species. Almost every Chinese and every Japanese is 
fond of pets individually, bird, insect, or canine; but 
for dogs generally the same individual is apt to manifest 
contempt. 

Absence of European specialization and training of the 
breeds has deprived the Chinese and Japanese of enjoyment of 
those particular canine qualities which have for centuries given 
much of the zest of life to the sportsman in Europe and, more- 
over, provide no small interest to the soldier, fowler, trainer, 
shepherd, and breeder. 

From certain State papers it has been possible to show that 
from very early periods the dog has been used extensively by 
European and Eastern monarchs as State presents. The 
emperors and kings of the past prided themselves on their 
success in adapting dogs to the varied uses of the chase, and 
this success, which fell in no small measure to British trainers, 
was utilized on many occasions for the promoting of friendly 
intercourse with foreign countries. 

The culture of Japan, including much of its religion and 
art, has its origin in China. The scantiness of literature 
dealing with Japanese dogs is, consequently, compensated to 
some extent by the comparative wealth of Chinese sources of 
information. The two chapters dealing with the Buddhist 
lion and its symbolism represent a considerable amount 

* Inscription on the monument to a Newfoundland dog. Byron. 

vi 



PREFACE 

of research in both Eastern and European writings. It is 
hoped that the information gained will prove of value to 
searchers working far beyond the limited scope comprised 
within the title of this work. 

The author acknowledges a deep sense of obligation to 
certain Chinese friends for their enthusiastic help in a task 
which, from an interesting hobby, has developed into the 
product of much study. Little of the Chinese literary 
material obtained would have come to light but for the en- 
thusiasm of Mr. Wu Ch'i-ts'un, who, having become inter- 
ested in the subject, attacked it with painstaking and scholarly 
ardour. He has carefully examined all records accessible in 
Peking. His researches were at first confined to the breed of 
dogs commonly known in Europe as " Pekingese," but in- 
formation bearing on other breeds has been obtained, and is 
recorded for those who may be interested. In the second 
place a debt must be gratefully acknowledged to Wang Hou- 
chun, who, though but a humble admirer of the Imperial 
breed, has, through his seventy-five years' experience as 
keeper of dogs and hawks, spent for the most part in the 
palace of Prince Wu Yeh, brother of the Emperor Tao Kuang, 
proved a mine of information on matters canine. Special 
thanks are also due to Abbot Pai Kuong-fa of the Lama 
Temple in Peking, who has been kind enough to point out 
the exact connexions between Tibetan and Chinese lion 
dogs, the Chinese lion, and the Tibetan Scriptures. From 
these last certain references which are of considerable interest 
have been collected. Additional thanks are due to General 
Ch'ien Hsi-lin, previous Chief of Intelligence in charge of the 
Police dogs of President Yuan Shih-k'ai, and Mr. Kungpah T. 
King, formerly of the Board of Interior, also to numerous 
others, both Chinese and foreign, in Peking, who have supplied 
information and corroboration on many points. 

vii 



PREFACE 

The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to 
Berthold Laufer, for the use of his authoritative and in- 
valuable work on " Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty," 
published by the East Asiatic Committee of the American 
Museum of Natural History. This work has been much used 
and quoted. " Toy Dogs and their Ancestors," by the Hon. 
Mrs. Neville Lytton, has also been freely consulted. Acknow- 
ledgments are also due to the numerous authors of the works 
cited in the notes. 

It is possible that the records of the Chinese Imperial 
Palace will, if they become available, throw further light upon 
the origin and history of the Pekingese type of dog. They 
may also explain how much of its quality the British spaniel 
breed owes to Chinese ancestors. That the English pug is 
descended from the Chinese dog may be considered as settled. 
It appears not unlikely that the King Charles spaniel is 
descended from a short-headed Chinese race. More light is 
required on the history of the Tibetan and Japanese races, 
but the outline of their development is now clear. 

It is hoped that the information gained may prove, by 
indicating something of the age of the Pekingese race and 
the reasons for its special characteristics, to be of some 
assistance to the experiments which have, for some years, been 
carried out at University College, London, with Pekingese 
dogs, in connexion with Mendelism. There appears to be no 
doubt that a distinct breed of white non-albino Pekingese, 
though now extinct, has existed in the Imperial Palace. 

The Chinese, Tibetan, Japanese, or Mongol scholar may 
find small points for debate in some of the translations. It 
has not been possible to secure the checking of them all 
by high authorities, but the sense certainly represents a 
close approximation to the original meaning. Special care 
has been taken to secure good authority for all quotations and 
viii 



PREFACE 

statements. The Tibetan translations have presented special 
difficulties. The language of Tibetan gospels written in 
ancient Lama script is not simple of comprehension, even to 
the Lama. The lack of scholars possessing a knowledge of 
Tibetan has necessitated transliteration by Lamas who, 
having no knowledge of Chinese characters, wrote in Mongol 
script. The Mongolian character had then to be translated 
into Chinese before ultimate reduction to English. 

It is hoped that even to those who take no interest in dogs, 
the following pages may be attractive because of the side- 
lights thrown on Chinese history, together with Eastern 
palace life, and the inter-State relations of the long line of 
Emperors who have dominated the world's oldest ruling race. 
Modern research tends to prove that more of the East than was 
generally imagined is akin to the West. On the other hand, 
not a little of Western canine life owes its origin and dis- 
tinctive peculiarities to the East. 



IX 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I. 

EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES. 

Geological history of the dog in Europe. Its domestication. Ancient records 
of tribute dogs. Dog- worship by ancient Egyptians and Aryans. Attitude of 
Confucius toward dogs. Use of dogs by Chinese and Japanese Emperors for 
sporting purposes, also as pets. Pp. 1-19 



CHAPTER II. 

DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION, 

Use of dogs for culinary purposes in China, Corea, Indonesia, America and 
Europe. Dog-sacrifices. Former reverence for dogs in Japan. The God Erh 
Lang protector of dogs. His temple in Peking. The Heavenly Barking Dog 
which eats the sun and moon in eclipses. Dogs in Buddhism, Lamaism, Taoism 
and Fengshui. Pp. 20-43 



CHAPTER III. 

DOG-BREEDING. 

Its poUtical importance in China and in Europe in mediaeval times. The 
dogs of Kublai Khan. Cats of the Ming period. Lap-dogs and pigeons of Tao 
Kuang period. Imperial dog-books. Dogs of the late Empress Dowager. Com- 
mercial breeding of dogs in Manchuria and Mongolia. Pp. 44-55 



CHAPTER IV. 

SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS. 

Ancient Chinese sporting dogs. The mastiil in ancient China and mediasval 
Europe. Falconry. Its origin and practice in Europe, China and Japan. De- 
velopment of scent in dogs. Use of the fowhng-piece. The chow dog. Chinese 
sledge-dogs. The greyhound in China and in Europe. The small greyhound 
of Shensi and Kansu. The Chinese wolf-hound. The Tibetan mastiff. Tomb- 
dogs. British presents of mastiffs to the East. Records of Tibetan Mastiffs. 
Hydrophobia. Pp. 56-89 

xi 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER V. 

THE CHINESE LION. 

The lion not indigenous. Its popularity due to the introduction of Buddhism 
from India. The lion in captivity in China. Origin of lion-worship. The lion 
in Indian Buddhism. The lion in Foism. The lion in Lamaism. Description 
of the Lamaist lion. The spirit-lion and the lion-dog. Buddhist lion-stories. 
Chinese artistic idea of the lion. The lion in heraldry. Pp. 90-11 1 



CHAPTER VI. 

SYMBOLISM OF THE BUDDHIST AND LAMAIST LION. 

The Uon symbolic of Buddhism's power of subjection over animal passions. 
Lion-masques in China and Japan. The Buddhist lion a spirit-beast. Its 
connection with Egyptian mythology. Curious superstitions in connection with 
it. Its possession of certain characteristics of Buddha. Pp. 1 12-122 



CHAPTER VII. 

HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO DOGS OF PEKINGESE TYPE. 

Ancient Chinese small dogs. Early Chinese trade with Europe. Importa- 
tion of pet dogs during the T'ang Dynasty. The Lo-Chiang or Pug dog. 
References to pet dogs during the Sung, Yuan and Ming Dynasties. Relations 
with Europe during the latter Dynasties. Pp. 123-142 



CHAPTER VIII. 

EVOLUTION OF THE PEKINGESE TYPE. 

The first imperial pet-dogs not lion-dogs. First mention of lion-dog in the 
Sung Dynasty. Maltese dogs. Reason for popularity of " lion-dogs " at the 
Manchu Court. Increase of popularity up to the Tao Kuang period. First 
recorded importation to Europe. Dogs of the late Empress Dowager. 

Pp. 143-154 

CHAPTER IX. 

POINTS OF THE|CHINESE PEKINGESE TYPE.] 

Importance of head-characteristics. Two types of head in China. Head 
colours. Nose. Eyes. Tongue. Size of dogs. Mouth and cheeks. Body- 
development. Legs. Specialisation of Pekingese breeds during Tao Kuang 
period. Coat. Colour. Albinos. The spot. Spectacles. Special markings. 
Docking of tails. ^P- ^S5'^(>S 

xii 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER X. 

THE CHINESE PUG. 

Probable early introduction into Europe. Popularity of pugs in Europe. 
Possible origin in Szechuan. The Lo-Chiang dog. Its elasticity of skin. Fore- 
head wrinkles. " Button " ears. Tail. Pp. 166-17 1 



CHAPTER XI. 

THE "JAPANESE" DOGS. 

Introduction into Japan from China. European intercourse with Japan. 
Early Portuguese, Dutch and British trade. Possible Eastern origin of the King 
Charles spaniel. First recorded importation of Japanese dogs. Pp. 172-180 

CHAPTER XII. 

THE CHINESE LION DOG. 

Tibet. Historical notes. The name applied by the Chinese to any long- 
coated dog. Presentation of lion-dog by the Tibetans to the Manchu Emperors. 
The European lion-dog. Two varieties of lion-dog in China. Their charac- 
teristics. Pp. 1 8 1- 1 87 

CHAPTER XIII. 

TOY DOGS IN CHINESE ART. 

Paintings on porcelain. Pictures mostly modern. Shen Chen-hn. Type- 
pictures. Paintings mostly conventional. Pictures always full of symbolism 
and usually designed to convey wishes of good fortune. Examples of the wishes 
conveyed. Pp. 188-195 



xm 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



IN COLOUR 



To face tou 

Modern Pekingese Dog, Shen Chen-lin. {Frontispiece) 

Hunting Scene, Ch'ien Lung Period 46 

Hunting Scene, Ch'ien Lung Period 60 

Hunting Scene, Ch'ien Lung Period 78 
Painting from a Scroll of a Hundred Pekingese Dogs, Tao Kuang 

Period, after Tsou Yi-Kwei, K'ang Hsi Period 80 & 81 

Pekingese Dog, from an Imperial Dog Book. Painter unknown 146 

White Pekingese, from an Imperial Dog Book. Painter unknown 146 
Pekingese Dog, By Tsou Yi-Kwei, Vice-Minister of Board of Rites, 

from an Imperial Dog Book 156 
Chinese Pug, from an Imperial Dog Book.^Tsou Yi-Kwei, K'ang Hsi 

Period , 156 



IN BLACK AND WHITE 



To face tane 

Altar of Erh Lang, Peking 32 

Chinese Dog Breeder, Lung Fu Ssu Market, Peking 48 

Relief Band on Vase, Hsiao T'ang Shan 56 

Relief Band on Vase, Han Period 58 

Kansu Greyhounds 74 

Mastiff Tomb-Dog in Terra-Cotta, T'ang Period 74 

Kansu Greyhound 74 

Chinese Royal-coated Greyhound 74 

Pottery Mastiff, in side and front view, Han Period 76 
Lamaist Lion (Male), Bronze, Yung Ho Kung (Lama Temple, Peking), 

Ch'ien Lung Period 90 

Stone Lamaist Lion, Tien an Men 90 
The Animal World Reverencing a Sacred Tree, Relief from East Gate, 

Sanchi (India), about 140 b.c. 90 

Ming Seal 90 

Bronze Lion, Sung Period 90 

Ming Seal 90 

Bronze Lion, Ming Period 90 

Bronze Lion, Ming Period 90 

Ivory Seal, Ming Period 90 
Iron Lions before the Temple of Chiao Chun, God of Cookery, Peking, 

1665, K'ang Hsi Period 94 

Lamaist Bronze Lions (Modern) 94 

Porcelain Lions Ming Period 98 



XV 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Te face jiat' 

Terra-Cotta Incense Burners, Ming Period 98 

Lions in Lacquered Wood, Shop Front, Peking 100 

Lions in Blackwood, Peking 100 

Wooden Lion, Peking 104 
Lion Figures Guarding a Corner of Pavilion-Roof, Summer Palace, 

Peking 104 
Stone Pedestal of Pailou, Built by the Emperor Yung Lou, Ming 
Tombs, near Peking. Ethereal Lions with the Embroidered Ball 

and Tape-like Cords 104 

Iron Lions, Yao Wang Temple, Peking 104 

Lioness, Lama Temple, Peking 104 

Lion, Lama Temple, Peking 104 

Tibetan Lion (Female), K'ang Hsi Period. Italian Legation, Peking 112 

Tibetan Lion (Male), K'ang Hsi Period. Italian Legation, Peking 112 

Buddhist Lion- Masque, Peking, 1914 116 

Buddhist Lion-Masque, Peking, 1914 116 

Japanese Lion- Masque Players in Porcelain 116 

Buddhist Lion-Masque, Peking, 1914 118 

Bronze Incense Burner, Sung Period 120 

Silver Snuff Bottle 120 

Pair of Ivory Opium Boxes 120 
Miniature Bronze Lion and a Corean " Purify Heart Pill " (Lion's 

Milk Pill) 120 

Wen Shu (Manjusri) Buddha Riding on a Lion (Huang Ssu, near Peking) 122 
An Imperial Dog Scroll, Painted By Miao Su-Chiun, Instructress in 

Painting to the Late Empress Dowager, dated September, 1890 126 

Painting, K'ang Period, Signed " Respectfully Presented." Leng Mei 128 

Short-Coated " Pekingese," Modern 132 
Back of Chinese Hand Mirror, Tao Kuang Period (about 1850), Painted 

ON Silk 132 

Porcelain Dogs from Peking, Tao Kuang Period 140 

Chinese Pug Dog, from an Imperial Dog Book 140 

Shen Chuan, by High Official of K'ang Hsi (early) Period 140 

Porcelain Dogs from Peking, Tao Kuang Period 140 
Painting by the Imperial Brush of Tzu Hsi, Empress Dowager, in the 

Ninth Year of T'ung Chih (1870) 142 

Nine Buddhist Lions 148 

Porcelain Bowls with Eight Dogs, Tao Kuang Period (Pa-erh Kou) 148 

Porcelain Snuff Bottles, Peking 148 

" Ho YuN, 1820 Chiu Ching." Chin Shih, Toong Chu 158 

Chinese Picture (recent) used in Breeding 158 

Cloth Lantern Cover. Shen Chen-lin 160 
Silk Fan Signed " Shen Lin," 1901, after the style of the Yuan Dynasty 

(1260 a.d.) 160 

Chinese Fan 160 

Chiu Shih Toong Chu Fan, Tao Kuang Period 160 
Lacquer Picture of Pekingese Dogs, Pah-erh Kou, K'ang Hsi Period, 

1662-1723 164 
Panel Marked " Three Divided Flowers " Dog, Tao Kuang Period, 
AFTER Lu Pao Shun, Painter of the Ming Period. Hsing Ke T'u 

(Hsing and the Pigeons) 164 

xvi 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

To fai,e iJii^c 

Lo-szE Dog, " Shen Chen-lin.' i68 

Chinese Lo-sze or Pug Dog, Peking, 1914 168 

Chinese Lion Dog, Peking 182 

Chinese Lion Dog 182 

Lion Dog, from an Imperial Dog Book 182 
Lion Dog, from the Portrait of Dorothy Brereton, Second Wife of 

Sir Peter Leigh of Lyme, 161 5 182 

The Lion Dog 182 

Chiu Shih Toong Chu, Probably Tao Kuang Period 188 

Fan (Hsing Ke T'u) 188 

Porcelain Snuff Bottle 188 

Amber Snuff Bottles with Interior Painting 188 

Porcelain Snuff Bottle, Tao Kuang Period 188 

Chinese Bowl, Peking 190 

Chinese Teacup and Cover, Tao Kuang Period 190 

Porcelain Face-Powder Box from Peking 190 
Porcelain Snuff Bottle from Peking, Shih-Tzu Kun Hsiu Chiu. Lion 

Rolls Embroidered Ball 194 

Chinese Snuff Bottle (Tai Shih, Shao Shih), Tao Kuang Period 194 

Chinese Snuff Bottle (Tai Shih, Shao Shih), Tao Kuang Period 194 

Chinese Snuff Bottles (Recent) San Yu T'u (Three Friends Pictures) 194 



XVll 



TABLE OF DATES 

f Chou Dynasty. 



B.C. 
II22- 

255- 

, , I Date of Assur-bani-pal (Assyrian) reliefs at Nineveh. 

557. Birth of Buddhae 

551. Birth of Confucius. 

326. Alexander the Great invaded India after conquering Persia. Greek Art 
introduced into North India. 

•^ I Asoka, great patron of Buddhism, reigned in India . 

200. Chinese capital was Hsianfu. 

150. Approximate date of Hsiao T'ang Shan (Han period) reliefs. > 

A.D. 

100. Jalandha Council. Buddhism divided into Northern and Southern. 

300. Chinese capital was Lohyang. 

420. Chinese capital was Hanking. 

500. Buddhism preached by Chinese emperors. 

552. Advent of Buddhism in Japan. 
600. Chinese capital was Hsianfu. 
618. Beginning of the T'ang Dynasty. 

632. Buddhism first actively propagated in Tibet. 

632-"! During this period Syrian, Christian, Nestorian and Assyrian Myths were 

747./ probably incorporated with Buddhism to make up Lamaism. 

Tenth Century. There were Five Monarchies having capitals at Kaifengfu, 
Loh-yang, Ta Ming (Chi-li), Tai Yuen, Si-Ngan, and Peking at various 
periods. 
1 153. Chinese capital was moved to Peking. 
1206-) 

1333- 

1253. Kublai Khan went to Tibet and brought back Lamaism 

llzs'} ^'"S Dynasty. . 

1644. Capture of Peking by the Manchus. 

1662. Chinese Emperor K'ang Hsi came to the throne. 

1723. Chinese Emperor Yung Ching came to the throne. 

1736. Chinese Emperor Ch'ien Lung came to the throne. 

1793. Lord Macartney's Embassy to Peking. 

1796. Chinese Emperor Chia Ch'ing came to the throne. 

1821. Chinese Emperor Tao Kuang came to the throne. 

1851. Chinese Emperor Hien Feng came to the throne. 

1862 Chinese Emperor Kuang Su came to the throne. 

xix 



t Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty. 



CHAPTER I 
EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES 

THE dog is believed, on evidence furnished by cave 
deposits, to have been introduced into Europe by 
neolithic peoples,* and to have been about the size 
of an ordinary shepherd's dog.f 

Geological research being in its infancy in China, it is too 
much to hope that similar information as to introduction 
of the dog into China will become available for some time. 
It is known, from literary sources, that the Chinese has been an 
agricultural race from its earliest days. It has always con- 
sidered agriculture to be the root of its existence. It must, 
however, have been to some extent pastoral, though the valley 
of the Yellow River, in which the Chinese first settled, was 
probably well wooded at the time of arrival. Dogs were, no 
doubt, used for the defence of the home, for the herding of 
sheep and cattle, and for the chase. 

In Japan geological research has been assisted by scientific 
examination of numerous dolmen and lake deposits similar to 
those found in England. The well-known writer, Brinkley, 
states that the early Japanese were derived from two swarms of 
colonists, both coming from Siberia, their arrival being 
separated by a long interval, the first cave-dwellers and the 
second the Ainu, who used stone implements and practised 
cannibalism. Among the amusements confined to men, 

* Professor Boyd Dawkins, " Cave Hunting," pp. 256-7. 

f Professor Rolleston, " Scientific Papers and Addresses," p. 522. 

A I 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

cock-fighting and hunting were most practised. Large tracts 
of the country were still unreclaimed, deer and wild-boar 
abounded. These were driven by beaters into open spaces, 
there to be pursued by men on horseback with bows and 
arrows. In the fourth century the pastime of hawking was 
introduced. It came from Korea, a king of that country 
having sent a present of falcons to the Emperor of Japan.* 

One theory as to the evolution of domestic dogs is that they 
were tamed at approximately the same period by several 
branches of the human race from the local wolf or jackal, 
and that to this must be traced the fact that in certain areas 
the native dog resembles the local wolf. Modern geological 
research, however, indicates that certain races of early man 
had no domestic dogs. According to Professor Geikie,f the 
dog was not part of the indigenous fauna of Europe in 
Palasolithic times, and was introduced in Neolithic times by 
tribes who migrated, probably from Central Asia, into the 
European continent. Similarly the domestic cat arrived in 
England only at a period which was very late, in Saxon times. 
In early Neolithic or late Palseolithic times certain tribes 
which were in contact with the jackal-like C. mikii of the 
period, in an environment which favoured co-operation in the 
chase, captured the young of that animal, and because of the 
human ability to throw stones, to tie knots, and to use sticks, 
established such an ascendancy as to take full advantage of 
canine possibilities as watchers, as destructors of refuse, as 
food in time of need, and as assistants in the scenting out and 
pursuit of game. The tribes which first domesticated the 
dog were probably the first to domesticate the sheep and the 
ox. Geologists place the first known human remains as 
dating from at least 400,000 years B.C. Consequently, 

* " Japan and China,'' vol. i, Captain F. Brinkley. 
t " Text-book of Geology," vol. ii. p. 1356. 



EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES 

there was plenty of time for the race which first made 
progress in the domestication of the dog to take advantage of 
its discovery, which in those days was of a relative value far 
more important than all the discoveries of modern science, 
and possibly constituted a determining factor in early success- 
ful migrations, perhaps even in the migration of the Neo- 
lithics into Europe. C.palustris of the lake dwellings of the 
Neolithic period seems, according to Elliott, to be a slightly 



% Wi 





ENGRAVING OF A DOG ENGRAVING OF A WOLF 

(from MAO SHIH) (from MAO SHIH) 

From "Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty." By Berthold Laufer. 

modified form of C. mikii. These partially domestic dogs 
of the neolithics would, no doubt, occasionally cross with the 
local wild dogs and wolves. " Prince Poutiatini discovered 
near Lake Bologoia in Russia a deposit of early Post-Glacial 
age which included a very dog-like wolf, which has been 
called after him C. poutiatini. The interesting point about it 
is the great elevation and width of the skull as compared with 
modern or extinct wolves. It is closely allied to the dingo 
of Australia and to the half-wild dog of Java (C tenger- 
ratius). Others suppose that an Indian wild-dog was the 
chief dog ancestor. Dogs of an Abyssinian species, of Egypt 
and of Majorca, are very like it. A curious point with regard 
to the further history of C. poutiatini under domestication is 

3 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

that his brain seems to have increased in size, undergoing 
much the same experience as that of man himself,"* 

The position as regards domestication of the dog in China 
is well summed up by Bertold Laufer : f " We do not 
possess any historical records of any literature regarding the 
early domestication of animals, and therefore we should not 
expect to find such in China. The ' six domesticated 
animals ' of the Chinese — horse, ox, pig, sheep, dog, and fowl 
— existed in and with the nation when it appeared on the stage 
of history. They were there, and later historians could not 
explain their origin. They took them as one of the facts 
which cannot be accounted for, and as altogether too plain and 
natural to require discussion. In short, what has become a 
problem to our modern science was not a problem at all to 
them. Huang Ti is credited with the taming of bears, 
leopards, panthers, lynxes, and tigers, which he employed 
in battle against his adversaries ; but the simple question of 
training dogs remained untouched even by legend. The 
dog has doubtless been a constituent of Chinese culture 
since most ancient times, which is all that we are able to 
state with safety. The question as to who were the 
domesticators of the dog in Eastern Asia must naturally 
remain unanswered, at least from the standpoint of history." 

Laufer describes and figures J a bronze " tazza " of the 
Chou dynasty, upon which are engraved animals to the 
number of one hundred, including dogs. This is believed 
to be the oldest representation extant of dogs in China. 
Unfortunately the " tazza " is small in dimensions, and the 
drawings, though of artistic value, are imaginative and prob- 
ably defective as accurate representations of the dogs of the 
period. The dogs figured appear to be of two or, perhaps, 

* " Prehistoric Man and his Story," C. F. Scott Elliot, p. 197. 

f " Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty," Laufer, p. 251. 

J P. 150. From an engraving in the " Hsi ch'ing ku chien," Book 29, p. 26. 



EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES 



three kinds : one, diminutive, short-tailed, with erect ears ; 
another, long-bodied and long-tailed, long-legged, also with 
erect ears ; and a third of sturdier build, also long- tailed, 
and with erect ears. 
It has been re- 
marked by zoologists 
that the semi- 
domestic dogs of 
the early inhabitants 
of many regions of 
the earth closely 
resemble the wolf 
races of the same 
regions, with these 
differences, that the 
domesticated dog is 
able to bark, while 
the wolf is able only 
to howl, and that in 
the wolf the position 
or form of the eye is 
oblique, while the 
dog has a circular 
pupil. The wolf is 
found throughout 
China. Very few 
specimens, however, 
have been secured, 
and the Chinese races have never been studied by scientists. 
Similar remarks hold good for the wild dog, or " tsai-kou " 
of the Chinese. Two varieties of the wild-dog (C. alpinus) 
occur in China, one from the Tibet-Kansu borderland, the 
other from the Manchurian forests. They are closely related to 

5 




BHONZE TAZZA (FROM HSI CH'ING KU CHIEN) 

From " Chiaese Pottery oJ the Han Dynasty.". By Berthold Laufer. 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

the red dog of the Deccan,* The race is found in many parts 
of China. In size and build it is smaller than the common 
Chinese grey wolf. Its coloration is almost as varied as that of 
the domestic dog. In Yunnan Province as many as two or 
three individuals differing in colour have been seen near one 
village at one time in winter. It is not known to form packs, 
and is rarely seen in summer. Its cry resembles the howl of 
the domestic dog. 

Among the Aryans the shepherd's dog, the house-dog, and 
the vagrant dog, comparable to the homeless begging friar, 
were specially protected by religious ordinances. The keep- 
ing back of their food or the giving of bad food to them was a 
crime punishable with many stripes. " For it is the dog, 
of all the creatures of the good spirit, that most quickly 
decays into age, while not eating near eating people, and 
watching goods none of which it receives. Bring ye unto 
him milk and fat with meat ; this is the right food for the 
dog." t 

" Whenever one eats bread one must put aside three 
mouthfuls and give them to the dogs ... for among all 
the poor than is none poorer than the dog." J 

A further remark by Berthold Laufer deals with the possible 
wolf-origin of certain breeds of Chinese dogs : 

" Most interesting in this connexion is a passage in the 
' Tso chuan,' § ' To the Jung and Ti, the wolf is not an object 
of dislike,' by which is meant, apparently, that the wolf was 
not dreaded by these presumably Turkish tribes, and was 
accustomed to live in the neighbourhood of human dwellings. 

* Soweihy, Journ. N.C.B.R.A.Soc, vol. xlvii. 

t Zend Avesta, " Sacred Books of the East," vol. iv., p. 158. 

J Saddar, 31 ; Hyde, 35. 

§ Given in the " Mao shih ming wu t'u shuo " (Book II, p. 3), under the descrip- 
tion of the wolf, where again it is quoted after the book of Hsing Ping (932-1010) : 
Giles, " Biographical Dictionary," p. 296. 

6 



EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES 

This reminds us of Jaschke's remark, that the Tibetan wolves, 
where more numerous — as, for instance, in Spiti — commit 
ravages among sheep, but are otherwise not much dreaded by 
man, and, like the wolf in general, they are easily tamed. If 
we compare in the above-mentioned book, ' Mao shih,' etc., 
the picture of the wolf with that of the dog (mang*), a 
striking resemblance between the two is noticeable as regards 
shape of head, mouth, and body, legs, claws, tail, and hairi- 
ness. The mang is mentioned as early as the ' Shih king,' 
and must therefore have been known to the Chinese at an 
early date. It now seems questionable whether the Tibetans 
are to be looked upon as the trainers of the mastiff ; if not, 
rather ancient Turkish tribes tamed the wolf — an animal with 
which they were always quite familiar, and which played an 
eminent role in their tribal traditions and creation myths f — 
at a much earlier period. Of the fact that the dog in general 
was known in the South-Siberian bronze age, we possess well- 
authenticated archaeological evidence in a bronze plaque re- 
presenting a hunter accompanied by two dogs. In this 
connexion it is worthy of note that a fierce kind of dog, called 
p'i ngan (usually translated ' bull-dog '), whose picture is 
painted on the doors of jails because of his ability as a watch- 
dog, is said to originate from the land of the Turks. 

* The " Shuo wen " (a.d. ioo) gives the following names of dogs, and their 
definitions : 

Hsien (or lien) is a black dog with yellow chin. 

Mang is a dog with plenty of hair. 

Hsien (character sUghtly different from above) is a dog that barks incessantly. 

Ao is a dog that knows man's heart, and can accordingly be utilized. (See Laufer, 

P- 253-) 

The " Erh Ya " states that a dog with long snout is called hsien or lien ; one with 
a short snout, hsieh hsiao. According to the ' Shih King,' both are hunting dogs 
(Couvreur's edition, p. 134). The " Erh Ya " also states that the chao is a dog of great 
strength. 

f H. Vamb6ry, " Die primitive Cultur des turko-tatarischen Volkes " (Leipzig, 
1879), pp. 197-98. 

7 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

" Other evidence pointing to the same fact is found in the 
peculiar ' dog of the kind which is found with the barbarians 
Ti,' mentioned by Ssu-ma Ch'ien. And if the country of Lii, 
which sent the hound ao, was a branch of the Western Jung, 
everything is indeed apt to show that these large extraordinary 
dogs, including the mastiffs — if the term mang may be 
identified with the latter — came from Turkish regions. It is 
noteworthy, too, that, according to the dictionary ' Shuo 
wen ' (a.d. I go), the land of the Hsiung nu (Huns) possessed 
a special kind of dog, called chiao, with large mouth and 
black body, which characteristics are essential to the mastiff. 
For the rest, the definition of the chiao appears as a fabulous 
animal in the ' Shan hai king ' : ' On the nephrite hills there 
is an animal of a shape like a dog, striped like a panther, and 
with horns like an ox ; it is called chiao ; its voice is like that 
of a barking dog ; in the country where it appears dogs will be 
abundant.' In a book, ' Jui ying t'u,' occurs now the inter- 
esting passage that the Hsiung nu offered panther-dogs with 
pointed mouth, red body, and four feet. Whether these latter 
animals were mastiffs or not — red colour occurs with them, in 
fact — it is evident that the Hsiung nu possessed extraordinary 
dogs, which arrived also in China." 

The chase was of prime interest to the ancient Chinese, 
and there are numerous references to sporting dogs in their 
earlier literature. The first Emperors known to history 
organized hunting expeditions, with levies from every district, 
four times a year, chiefly with a view to training their men for 
war. There are, unfortunately, few descriptions of the breeds 
of hunting dogs used, yet it is known that the Emperors set 
great value on them. The " Tribute Decrees for the four 
Quarters " * records that a Grand Councillor of the Emperor 
T'ang, who lived about 1760 B.C., counselled his master to 

* " Yuan Chuan Lei Han," vol. cdxxxvi, " Dogs," second part. 

8 



EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES 

take from the Due South (of Honan) country " square " 
dogs as tribute. The Chinese monarchs of the period, 
perhaps, shared the zoological tastes of the potentates of 
Assyria, such as Tiglath-Pileser, who collected all kinds of 
beasts for his menageries at a period about 1200 B.C. Dogs, 
both large and of small size, are known, from the Egyptian 
bas-reliefs, to have existed in even earlier days.*f They 
also existed in South America. J There is nothing to indicate 
whether the Chinese " square " dogs were large or small. 

The Books of Shang mention the sending as tribute of a hound 
or hounds, perhaps, according to Chinese commentators quoted 
by Legge, bloodhounds, called " ao " (pronounced as ough 
in bough), " knowing the mind of man and capable of being 
employed " by the wild tribe of Leu in the West " by way of 
instruction " to the young king. King Woo, probably about 
1 120 B.C. Commenting on this fact the Chinese classics laid 
the foundation upon which Chinese foreign policy was des- 
tined, for thirty centuries and more, to be based : " A prince 
should not do what is unprofitable to the injury of that 
which is profitable, and then his merit may be completed. 
He should not value strange things to the contemning of things 
that are useful, and then his people will be able to supply all 
his needs. Even dogs and horses which are not native to 
his country he will not keep ; fine birds and strange animals 
he will not nourish in his kingdom. When he does not look 

* " Helps to Study of the Bible," plate Ixx. 

f Dr. S. Birch behaved the spaniel to be identified on the early Egyptian monu- 
ments. M. B. Wynne, " History of the Mastiff," 1886, p. 37. 

I " Dogs were used for hunting, and it is noteworthy that remains of three kinds 
of dog, all differing from that of Europe, have been found on the coast. The largest 
of these was an animal of medium size with slender head and legs, and was probably 
used for watching the house (and, in the interior, the herds), and for hunting. The 
second was a short-legged dog, somewhat resembling a dachshund, which, to judge 
from a vase-painting, was also used in the chase. The third was a kind of pug, 
probably kept as a lap-dog." " South American Archaeology," Joyce [Peru], 
Macmillan, 1912. 

9 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

on foreign things as precious, foreigners will come to him ; 
when that which is precious to him is worth, his own people 
near at hand will enjoy repose." * 

Nothing is known of the situation of the Leu country, 
and the dogs are not described by any reliable Chinese 
authority. Other Chinese commentators state that these 
dogs were " Four feet (ancient feet, that is) high," but the 
authority of such commentators, who wrote in some cases 
hundreds of years after destruction of the original text, is 
doubtful. Laufer considers that the Leu were one of the 
numerous branches of the Turkish tribes. 

German writers f have gone so far as to base upon this 
record a totally unjustified statement that the dogs of Leu 
were Thibetan mastiffs, and on this slender testimony have 
built up an elaborate theory to the effect that the Chinese dog 
is of Thibetan origin, and that the canine race in China is 
derived from Western countries. These German writers 
have omitted to take into consideration the fact that up to the 
seventh century a.d. there was no such country as Thibet, and 
the people who occupied the region at present called by that 
name consisted of unknown nomad tribes, having no recorded 
history, for the foundation of civilized monarchy in Thibet 
was laid only in a.d. 652. They were steeped in barbarism, 
and devoid of any written language. 

Chavannes, quoting from the " Annals of Ssu-ma Ch'ien," 
states that the Emperor Chou Hsin (1154-1123 B.C.) of the 
Yin dynasty, in ill repute on account of his extravagance and 
debauchery, maintained a great number of dogs, horses, and 
rare objects, and filled his palaces with them. J 

* Legge's " Chinese Classics," vol. iii, Part V, Book V. 

t Oscar Albrecht, " Zur Altesten Geschichte des Hundes," Munschen, 1903, p. 58 ; 
C. Keller, " Die Abstammung des Altesten Hausthiere," Zurich, 1902, p. 74 ; Max 
Sieber, " Der Thibethund," Winterthur, 1897. 

t Chavannes, " Les memoires historiques de Se-ma Ts'ien," vol. i, p. 200. 

10 



EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES 

An ofRcial record * of the Chow Dynasty (about looo B.C.) 
remarks, " From the Southern (of Shansi) States the yearly 
tribute included amber, pearls, ivory, rhinoceros' horns, 
kingfishers' feathers, cranes, and short dogs." The nature 
of the other products clearly indicates that these dogs came 
from South China, though it is just possible that some of 
them may have originated from more distant countries, 
travelling by the sea route. 

Under primitive conditions the dog was, no doubt, more 
than the friend of man. He was his ally, useful for pro- 
tection, necessary alike for the guarding of his herds and the 
taking of his prey. It was only when man, by agriculture 
and his other arts, had improved his position sufficiently to 
become independent, that he began to give the dog a bad 
name, certain religions, such as the Jewish and Mohammedan, 
banning the race as abominable and unclean. In the whole 
of Jewish history there is not a single allusion to hunting 
with dogs, Jewish prejudice was, no doubt, largely due to 
the exaggerated idolatry practised to the race from time im- 
memorial by the Egyptians, hereditary enemies of the Jews. 

The beneficent dog-headed divinity Anubis, originally a 
jackal-type, and later represented by the dog as his emblem, 
was among the Egyptians, servant, messenger, and custodian 
of the gods, lord of the cemetery and of the underworld. 
Temples were consecrated to him throughout the land, and 
his image was borne in all religious ceremonies. This dog- 
worship was not confined to Egypt, for the Greeks adopted it, 
and a Roman emperor carried the god Anubis in the feasts of 
Isis. Herodotus, speaking of the sanctity in which some 
animals were held by the Egyptians, to whom the appearance 
of the watchful dog-star Sirius, " Latrator Anubis," above the 
horizon was the signal that their flocks had to be removed 

* " Yi Chou Shu." 

II 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

from Lower Egypt and the coming floods of the Nile, says that 
the people of every family in which a dog died shaved them- 
selves — their expression of mourning — adding that this was 
the custom of his own time. 

Very fine and clear representations of the sporting dogs 
used in hunting the wild ass by the monarchs of Assyria are 
found in the bas-reliefs of Assur-bani-pal, dating from 668- 
626 B.C. Clay models of the dogs of this monarch also exist.* 

In Ethiopia not only was great veneration paid to the dog, 
but the inhabitants used to elect a dog as their king. It was 
kept in great state and surrounded by a numerous train of 
officers and guards. 

Pythagoras, after his return from Egypt, founded a new 
sect in Egypt and S, Italy, teaching, with the Egyptian 
philosophers, that at the death of the body the soul entered 
into that of various animals. At the death of any of his 
favourite disciples he would hold a dog to the mouth of the 
man in order to receive the departing spirit, saying that there 
was no animal which could perpetuate his virtues better than 
that quadruped .f 

The Parsi religion, whose priests ruled Persia from a period 
many centuries before the Christian era until overthrown by 
the second successor of Mohammed, devoted the whole of one 
of its sacred books, found in the Zend Avesta to the dog. 
To the Magi of this fire-worshipping religion the Rabbi's 
and Mohammed owe much of their thought. To a reaction 
against its extravagant dog-reverence coupled with that of 
ancient Egypt is, perhaps, due the abhorrence in which the 
dog is held by Saracen and Jew alike. This veneration held 
by the Aryans for the canine disguise attributed to some of 
their divinities, appears to throw light upon the race's 

* " Mesopotamian Archasology," by Percy S. P. Handcock, 1912. 
f Encydopadia Britannica, " The Dog." 

12 



EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES 

importance to man in those early days. " The dog, O Spitama 
Zarathustra ! I, Ahura Mazda, have made, self-clothed and 
self-shod, watchful, wakeful, and sharp-toothed, born to take 
his food from man and to watch over man's goods. I, 
Ahura Mazda, have made the dog strong of body against the 
evil-doer and watchful over your goods, when he is of sound 
mind. If those two dogs of mine, the shepherd's dog and 
the house-dog, pass by the house of any of my faithful 
people, let them never be kept away from it. For no house 
could subsist on the earth made by Ahura, but for those two 
dogs of mine, the shepherd's dog and the house dog." 
The sacred writer lays down special injunctions for the 
breeding of dogs, the care of young dogs, and for the general 
treatment of the race. " If the bones stick in the dog's teeth 
or stop in his throat, or if the hot food burn his mouth or his 
tongue, so that mischief follows therefrom, and the dog dies, 
this is a sin that makes a man a Peshotanu." * The reasons 
for which the canine race has the characters of a priest, a 
warrior, a husbandman, a strolling singer, a thief, a wild 
beast, a courtezan, and a child are explained at length. The 
holy writer explains that at death a dog's ghost passes to the 
spring of the waters and that there, out of every thousand 
males and every thousand females are formed a male and 
female water-dog. To each of the water-dogs, the holiest of 
all dogs, was ascribed an extraordinary measure of sanctity. 
So extravagant was the penalty allotted on paper by the 
Zoroastrians for the murder of a water-dog that it has been 
doubted whether their legislation ever existed as real and 
living law. The penalties imposed for such a murder in- 
cluded the infliction of twenty thousand stripes, the carrying 
of a similar number of loads of wood, the killing of ten 
thousand snakes, ten thousand cats, ten thousand tortoises, 

* Zend Avesta, " Sacred Books of the East," vol. iv, pp. i6o, 163, 173. 

13 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

twenty thousand frogs, the same number of ants, ten thousand 
earthworms and horrid flies. The culprit was to " godly and 
piously give to godly men " a set of priestly instruments, a 
set of war implements, of husbandmen's implements, the 
price of a stallion in silver, and of a camel in gold, a rill of 
running water, the depth of a dog and the breadth of a dog, a 
house with ox-stalls, goodly beds with cushions, a virgin 
maid, fourteen head of small cattle. He was to bring up twice 
seven whelps, and to throw twice seven bridges over canals.* 

Confucius, the chief of China's sages, who was born in 
the year 551 B.C., favoured simplicity, and was the enemy of 
all hypocrisy such as that which would not allow the price of 
a dog to be brought into the House of the Lord.f Con- 
fucius " smiled, and exclaimed, ' True, true,' in amusement " 
at the aptness of the simile when likened to a homeless dog 
at the gate of the City of Chen. J Literary Chinese will to this 
day, spontaneously borrow similar allusions from the classics. 
In introducing his son a scholar will use a strictly classical 
term which can only be translated by some refined EngHsh 
phrase, finally reducible to " puppy." Another, in offering 
his services, will state his willingness to be the " dog and the 
horse " of his master. 

The Province of Shantung, of which Confucius was a 
native, appears always to have been famous for its dogs. 
" In first-class houses there are fierce dogs that watch the 
doors to the halls of singing-girls. Men who are not regular 
customers are not allowed to enter unceremoniously. If they 
enter, the dogs bite them to death. Their warning is like 
that of a spirit, their fierceness like that of a tiger. They are 
dogs from Meng hai in Ts'ao chou." § 

* Zend Avesta, " Sacred Books of the East," vol. iv, p. i66. 
f Deuteronomy xviii. i8, J Shih Chi. 

§ A prefecture in Western Shantung. Ko chih ching yuan and T'u shu chi ch'eng, 
vol. dxciv, Laufer, p. 265. 

14 



EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES 

Reverting to the dog or dogs ao of Leu, whose arrival 
caused the enunciation of a foreign policy which has had an 
important bearing upon the development of the whole Chinese 
race, we jEind that numerous fanciful pictures of it have been 
produced by painters of the Sung (a.d, 960) and Ming (a.d. 
1368) dynasties. It is the most famous dog in Chinese history. 
The incident was frequently quoted to emphasize the necessity 
of study of statecraft upon later emperors, and to discourage 
over-affection for the four luxuries in whose possession these 
primitive rustic potentates were apt to take the greatest pride 
— namely, gold, jade, dogs, and horses. So addicted to the 
pleasure of the chase were these early " sporting " emperors, 
that all references to it had to be severely banned at the 
Imperial Audiences : "At Audiences let no reference be 
made to matters pertaining to the dog and the horse." * 
The learned Commentator adds " the dog and the horse are of 
minor importance, and not subjects worthy of discussion at 
Audiences." It is to be feared that in certain cases an emperor 
was somewhat inclined to hold the affairs of state merely " some- 
thing better than his dog, and a little dearer than his horse." 

His views may be compared to those of Julius Csesar : 
" One day in Rome, Caesar, seeing some rich foreigners 
nursing and petting young lapdogs and monkeys, inquired 
whether in their parts of the world women bore no children ; 
a truly imperial reproof to those who waste on animals the 
affection which they ought to bestow on mankind." f 

The paucity of detail in reference to dogs down to the period 
of the Emperor Chin Shih may be in part ascribed to the 
destruction of much valuable material in his holocaust of 
Chinese literature (255 B.C.), which, no doubt, accounts in 

* " Book of Rites," vol. i (written about the seventh century B.C.), vide " Com- 
mentaries of the Sung Dynasty." 

t Plutarch's " Life of Pericles," a.d. 40 ; " Toy Dogs," by the Hon. Mrs. Neville 
Lytton, p. 268. 

15 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

large measure for the poverty of later writings in matters 
dealing with the early history of Chinese dogs. Just as King 
James' " Counterblast " against tobacco-smoking forbade the 
writers of that period — ^notably Shakespeare — to mention 
the weed which flowed in wreaths of smoke — thus depriving 
us of much of the early history of Raleigh's discovery — so 
Chin Shih's ban on all things literary has left us in ignorance 
of many an incident which would otherwise now stand 
chronicled. 

Short-mouthed dogs are referred to as having existed in 
the time of Confucius.* The Sage mentions the dog in- 
cidentally in exhorting his disciples to salvage economy. 
He says : "I have heard that the discarded hangings of the 
chariot may be used to wrap the beloved saddle-horse for 
burial, and that the torn awning (or chariot umbrella) will 
serve to cover the dear house-dog in his grave." f 

About 500 years B.C. it is recorded that dogs were used in 
the kingdom now represented by the Province of Shansi 
for sporting purposes. Some of these were probably small 
dogs, for it is mentioned that after the day's sport, one kind of 
dog followed its master's chariot, while " those having short 
mouths were carried in the carts." | 

It was only as late as the Roman occupation that specific 
knowledge of the five races of dogs existent in England was 
secured. These are believed to have been the house-dog, the 
greyhound, the bulldog, the terrier, and the slow-hound. The 
British dogs are said to have been in great demand in Rome, 
both for hunting and for the sports of the amphitheatre ,§ 
and a special officer was appointed for procuring them. 

Similarly, it was only at the end of the first century of our 
era that the Chinese books became a little more specific as 

• " Erh Ya." f Li Chi. Pan Rung. J " Erh Ya." 

§ Notes and Queries, 1900, vol. v, p. 524. 
16 



EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES 

to the nature of the dogs mentioned. They speak of some of 
them as being called by the name " Pai," which later Chinese 
authorities explain as referring to a very small " short- 
legged " * and " short-headed " f type of dog, which belongs 
under the table.J The Chinese table of the period was low, 
and those round it sat on mats. 

From this period onwards, many of the Chinese emperors 
seem to have taken greater interest in small dogs. The 
Eastern emperors appear to have been led, partly, perhaps, 
through feminine influence, to extremes unsurpassed by the 
Merry Monarch himself. It may here be noted that re- 
ferences to dogs in Chinese history are often made with the 
object, not of recording details to throw light upon the 
manners of the period, but as obiter scripta to illustrate ef- 
feminacy and want of care in statecraft on the part of the ruler. 

There was a similar tendency among Japanese historians. 
" In the days of Takatoki, the ninth representative of the Hojo 
family (who reigned at the end of the thirteenth century) a 
new atmosphere permeated Kamakura. Instead of visiting 
the archery-ground and the fencing-school men began to waste 
day and night in the company of dancing-girls, professional 
musicians, and jesters. The plain simple diet of former 
days was exchanged for Chinese dishes. Takatoki kept 
thirty-seven concubines, maintained a band of two thousand 
actors, and had a pack of two thousand fighting-dogs." 
Twelve great fights took place every month, and when the 
champion of the dogs, fancifully described as being in some 
cases as big as oxen, were led through the streets, people 
doffed their head-gear, and even knelt down in reverence.§ 

The official history of the Han dynasty states that the 

* " Chien Lei Han." f " Kwong Yun " by Ch'en. 

X " Shuo wen " of Hsu Shen. 

§ " Japan and China," vol. ii, p. 13, by Captain F. Brinkley. 
II " Hou Han Shu," vol viii. Quoted by Pei Wen Yun Fu. 

B 17 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

Emperor Ling Ti (a.d. 168-190) was both foolish and vicious. 
He took to driving a chariot with asses four-in-hand in his 
capital, the result being that his faithful subjects followed the 
Imperial example to such good purpose that the price of asses 
became equal to that of horses. He sold rank and official 
positions. From the Chief of a Province whose annual 
salary was two thousand piculs of rice he would require twenty- 
thousand strings of cash in advance, but, if poverty forbade, he 
was willing to accept a promise of twice this amount at the 
completion of the term of office. He kept in his Western 
Garden at Lo Yang (Honanfu) a dog of which he was ex- 
tremely fond, and to this animal he gave the official hat of the 
Chin Hsien grade — the most important literary rank of the 
period — as well as an official belt. " The hat was 8| inches 
high in front, 3I inches high behind, and 10 inches broad." 

Nearly all the dogs which were reared by the Emperor 
were given the rank of K'ai Fu (approximately that of a 
Viceroy) ; others that of Yi Tung (a rank probably equivalent 
to the present post of Imperial Guardian). The females were 
given the ranks of the wives of the corresponding officials. 
These dogs were guarded by soldiers and fed on the best of 
rice and meat. For their beds they were given the choicest 
carpets.* 

The book from which this reference is taken proceeds 
gravely : " This had the effect of likening the high officials 
to dogs, and so was a bad practice." 

The literati could not forgive this fatuous bestowal of 
literary rank upon dogs, however intelligent. They stig- 
matize Ling Ti as weak, indolent, and content to leave his 
affairs of state to the chief eunuchs. 

The Emperor Fei Ti (a.d. 973-977) of the Southern Sung 
Dynasty appears to have got into similar bad odour with the 

* " Tung K'ao," by Ma Tuan Lin of the Yuan Dynasty. (Dateof book, a.d. 1319.) 
18 



EASTERN DOGS IN EARLY TIMES 

literati, for they record that he was addicted to drunkenness 
in temples, and was given to stealing dogs from his subjects.* 
His nightly prowlings, after the manner of Khalif Haroun-al- 
Raschid, in later days led to his death, for, returning to the 
palace one night in an inebriated state, he was followed and 
murdered by one of his generals. 

* Yu Pi T'ung Ch'ien. 



19 



CHAPTER II 
DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

IN parts of Europe, temporary isolation and rise in the 
cost of living have, from time to time, caused the flesh 
of the horse and other animals little known to the arts 
of cookery to be used as the food of man. In China, poverty, 
due to over-population, has existed from time immemorial, 
and it is not surprising to find, in the stories of early foreign 
travellers, confirmation of the wide-spread belief that, not- 
withstanding the nation's high degree of civilization, dog- 
flesh has been used as human food in that country. The 
Arab traveller Ibn Batuta wrote, about a.d. 1342, " The flesh 
of swine and dogs is eaten by the Chinese pagans, and it is 
sold publicly in their markets." * Fernam Mendez Pinto, a 
Portuguese whose remarkable adventures are recorded by 
Purchas, wrote two hundred years later, " We saw pennes 
full of little dogges to sell . . . frogs, snakes, snailes, all 
being meate with them (the Chinese)." f " The ordinary 
and daily meals are made by the Chinese very early," writes 
another traveller, " for they have an opinion that if they should 
fast till noon some misfortune should befall them that day. 
They are not curious in their diet, for they eat all manner of 
flesh without difference, as well that of a horse as of an ox : 
they are great lovers of swine's flesh, which they praise as the 
most delicious of any, and is preferred by them before any 

* " Cathay and the Way Thither," vol. iv, p. no. 

t " Purchas his Pilgrimes," vol. xii, p. 109, Maclehose. 

20 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

other. But the more ordinary sort of people will feed upon 
any carrion, either of a horse, mule, ass, dogs, or any 
creatures." * 

The Spanish priest Navarette, writing about twenty years 
later, reflects the point of view, in matters canine, of the 
European at a period when dog-fighting and bull-baiting were 
ordinary pastimes. " The Officer that carry'd me to the 
Metropolis assur'd me (and I had it from others before) that 
he eat for his Breakfast every morning 30 Eggs, and a Dog's 
Leg, and drank two Quartillos (it is about a pint and a half) of 
hot Wine. The good old man looked so fat and fair, it did a 
man good to see him. Infinite number of Dogs are eaten in 
China, they count their flesh delicate and nourishing, and have 
Butchers and Shambles where it is sold ; but more in the 
Northern Provinces than in the Southern. It is comical to 
see what a multitude of dogs pursue these Butchers as they 
go along the Streets ; I suppose the smell of the Dogs' flesh 
they carry about them provokes the other Dogs. When they 
go loaded with half a dozen or more Dogs to the Shambles, the 
sport is still better ; for the noise those so carry'd make, 
brings out all the Dogs in the Town to take their parts, and 
attack their mortal enemy's. They also eat Horse-flesh, 
Buft'alo, Cats, and Mice ; and other sorts. I myself eat of a 
Horse, Dogs, and Mice, and in truth I lik'd them very well." f 

The Mongolian tribes living in the Far North of ancient 
China ate dogs '-flesh, and as a means of trial by ordeal had a 
practice of drinking dogs' blood. Ysbrants Ides,| a Russian 
Ambassador who travelled to China in 1692, remarks in- 
cidentally, " While in Peking I observed, at the door of a 
considerable Mandaryn, and a Great Officer, some persons 

* John Ogilby's translation of NieuhofF's " Embassy from the East India Com- 
pany," 1655, p. 172. 

f " An Account of the Emperor of China," Navarette, p. 65. 

X " Three Years' Travels from Moscow to China," by Ysbrants Ides, 1706, p. 45. 

21 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

flaying of a fat Dog ; upon which I asked the Mandaryn, 
Wherefore that was done ? Who answered, That it was a 
healthful sort of food, especially in Summer, it being very 
cooling." He remarks of the Tungus tribes that they eat 
cats and dogs, and figures the butchering of these animals 
near their tents, stating that " Very few of them are found 
without several dead young Dogs hanging near them." He 
also figures the Tungus trial by ordeal, which is described as 
follows : " The Waywode asked the Accuser if he would, 
according to the Tunguzian Custom, put the Accused to his 
Oath ? To this he answered in the Affirmative ; after which 
the accused took a live Dog, laid him on the Ground, and with 
a knife stuck him in the Body, just under his left Foot, and 
immediately clapped his Mouth to the Wound, and sucked out 
the Dog's Blood so long as he could come at it ; after which 
he lifted him up, laid him on his shoulders, and clapp'd his 
Mouth again to the Wound in order to suck out the remaining 
Blood. An excellent drink indeed." 

In a work dating from the beginning of the nineteenth 
century we read : 

" We will not attempt, in a spirit of false delicacy, to conceal 
the fact that the lower class in China is in the habit of eating 
the flesh of the dog, the cat, the rat, etc. 

" But that which must be more astonishing is that according 
to tradition and the witness of the learned, it appears that the 
Chinese actually classed ass and dog-flesh as butcher's meat at 
a period in which, as its population was numerically moderate, 
means of subsistence could not have been scarce. This was a 
difficulty which, for a considerable period, embarrassed Pere 
Cibot, who spared no research in his endeavours to elucidate 
the point. At last he discovered in a celebrated work written 
for the instruction of the princes of the Imperial Family, that 
in ancient days three kinds of dogs were distinguished : the 

22 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

watch-dog, the hunting-dog, and the edible dog ; but 
according to the description of this last, this pretended dog 
used as food is nothing but the otter, an animal which 
European naturalists have also included in the canine 
species." * 

Father Cibot's authority is, no doubt, the remark of an early- 
Chinese commentator dealing with a quotation from the ' 
" Book of Rites." He remarks that " dogs are of three kinds : 
hunting-dogs, watch-dogs, and those used for culinary 
purposes, commonly known as edible dogs." f 

The endeavours to relieve the ancient Chinese of the 
supposed stigma of eating canine flesh is more ingenious than 
convincing, for the otter is not commonly found in China, is 
not classed as a dog, and has no special reputation as a table 
delicacy. Nor is the otter an animal which readily lends 
itself to fattening. The " Book of Rites " further enjoins that 
all animal gifts offered on sacred occasions shall be in a fitting 
state of plumpness, and remarks : "When a dog is offered at 
the sacrifices of the ancestral temples it is to be called ' Keng- 
hsien.' " The commentator solemnly explains that " Keng- 
hsien " is a soup made from a fat dog. Dog-flesh, on the other 
hand, is known by tradition to have been, from time im- 
memorial, the food of man in China, and to have been- 
considered, under certain conditions, a delicacy. The Chinese 
have no cause to be unduly sensitive on account of the tastes 
of their ancestors, for, writing at the same time as Father 
Grosier, another author remarks : " In America, the flesh of 
the dog is eaten, and it is to be found commonly with other 
kinds of meat and game in the public markets. The ancients 
also reckoned a young and fat dog excellent food. Hippoc- 
rates classed it with mutton and pork. The Romans 

* " Grosier de la Chine," 1819, vol, iv, p. 244. 
t " Book of Rites," vol. i, 

23 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

admired sucking whelps, and sacrificed them to their divinities. 
The Romans thought them a supper in which the gods 
themselves delighted." * 

Professor Boyd Dawkins, delving still deeper into the past, 
found evidence of the use of dogs '-flesh among the cave- 
dwellers of Britain itself, and remarks that the large percentage 
of fractured bones of puppies implies that they found especial 
culinary favour among our prehistoric ancestors, f 

In Corea dog-flesh was on sale among the common butchers' 
meats, and enjoyed by the people, in 1882. In the first 
month of the year, however, owing to religious scruples, no 
dog-meat was eaten. Griffis states that the people of Kokorai, J 
from whom the Coreans are descended, held dogs in con- 
siderable honour and named their rulers after the domestic 
beasts, the horse, the ox, and the dog, etc. In Japan dogs are 
held in very little honour except the " chin " or Japanese 
spaniel .§ It is a remarkable fact that though the Chinese 
and Corean partiality for dog-flesh has been noted by almost 
every close observer of their customs from early times, the 
Japanese appear never within historic times to have eaten 
this meat. In the light of the theory that the early Japanese 
were derived from two swarms of colonists both coming from 
Siberia, the first cave-dwellers and the second the Ainu, who 
used stone implements, the following remarks by Perry || 
are of considerable interest, as they seem to suggest absence 
of the influence of megalithic culture, which appears to have 
tended to restrain from the use of canine flesh, from early 
Chinese development. " Several facts go to show that the 
whole group of notions concerning the relationship between 

* Rees's" Cyclopsedia," vol. xii, " Dog," 1819. 
■\ Boyd Dawkins, " Cave Hunting." 

t " Corea : the Herniit Nation," Griffis, 1882, p. 267. § Ibid., p. 52. 
II " The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia," Manchester University Press, 1918, 
chap. XX. 

24 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

men and animals were introduced (into Indonesia) by the 
stone-using immigrants. For they appear to be more closely 
connected with animals than the indigenous peoples. The 
chiefs of Kupang in Timor are said to be descended from 
crocodiles." " The Khasi have certain food-restrictions. 
They do not, as a people, eat dogs or ordinary frogs." " The 
cat and dog are not eaten by the Kay an of the Mahakam river." 
" Among the Chiru no women may eat dog, which is also 
forbidden to the priests when killed for a sacrifice." " Dogs 
and salt fish are forbidden when rice is being transplanted, and 
dogs are forbidden during rice-harvest and epidemics." 

The street-dogs, as remarked by Robert Fortune,* a 
botanist who visited Japan in i860, " appear to be of the same 
breed as the common Chinese dog, and both have probably 
sprung from the same stock." They were as much neglected 
as is the case in China to-day. " On a warm summer after- 
noon," he continues, " these animals may be seen lying at full 
length in the public highway, apparently sound asleep ; 
and it was not unusual for our attendants to kick and whip 
them out of our road in a most unceremonious way. On 
many of them the marks of the sharp swords of the yakoneens 
were plainly visible, and everything tended to show, that if 
the dogs were regarded as sacred by some, the feeling fails to 
secure them from being cruelly ill-treated by the common 
people. It was not unusual to meet with wretched specimens 
in a half-starved condition, and covered with loathsome 
disease." His statements are confirmed by the remark of 
Lafcadio Hearn, that the condition of the Japanese dog is one 
thing which tells powerfully against beliefs about the influence 
of Buddhism upon the treatment of animals. 

The dog has had his day in Japan, however. " We went by 
the place where publick orders and proclamations are put up, 

* Kaempfer. 

25 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

not far from the ditch of the castle, where we saw a new pro- 
clamation put up lately and twenty shuits of silver nail'd to the 
post to be given as a reward to any body that would discover 
the accomplices of a murder lately committed upon a dog. 
Many a poor man hath been severely punish'd in this country, 
under the present Emperor's reign, purely for the sake of 
dogs." * 

The Chinese three-character classic, to this day a schoolroom 
text-book, continues to instil into the schoolboy mind that the 
canine and equine races supply two of the six kinds of flesh 
edible by man. To this day, too, dogs closely resembling the 
^'^ jreign " chow " are bred in parts of Quangtung and Quangsi 
'rovinces for culinary purposes. Black dogs are considered to 
be the most nutritious. " Flowery dogs " — those of mixed 
colour — are reputed to be the most palatable, those of yellow 
and white colour following them in culinary value. The 
puppies are fattened on rice, and killed at an age of about nine 
months. After removing the hair by scalding, the body is cut 
into six or eight pieces and boiled for about an hour. It is 
then fried in oil. The meat is cut into small pieces and cooked 
with dry mushrooms, preserved bean-cake, native onion, a 
little ginger, and water-chestnuts. The dish resulting is said 
to be exceedingly palatable, and to have the property of re- 
ducing fatigue due to sleeplessness. For this reason the dish 
was very popular with students in the provincial and national 
examinations of the Manchu regime, which were carried on 
continuously for several days. 

Archdeacon Gray,f writing in 1878 of the dogs'-flesh 
restaurants of Canton, states that in the city there were no less 
than twenty such places " where cooks may be seen standing in 
front of slow fires over which the flesh of cats and dogs is 
being cooked. Placards are sometimes placed above the door, 

* Kaempfer. f " China," J. H. Gray, vol. ii, p. 76. 

26 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

setting forth that the flesh of black dogs and cats can be 
served up at a moment's notice. On the walls of the dining- 
rooms are bills of fare. The following is a translation of one : 

Cat's flesh, one basin 

Black cat's flesh, one small basin 

Wine, one bottle 

Wine, one small bottle 



Ketchup, one basin 
Black dog's grease 
Black cat's eyes, one pair 



ID cents. 
5 cents. 

3 cents. 
1 1 cents, 
z cash. 

I tael 4 cents. 

4 cents. 



" The persons who frequent such eating-houses are re- 
spectable shopkeepers and artisans, and the sum which they 
pay for a good dinner is on an average 15 cents., or yjd. I 
have occasionally seen poor men dining at these restaurants, 
but they form a very small proportion of the visitors. At 
Peking I found two or three shops in which dog's flesh was 
exposed for sale as food ; and Dr. Williams has stated that 
dog hams are exported from the northern province of Shan- 
tung. At the commencement of summer a ceremony called 
A-chee, which consists in eating dogs' flesh is observed 
throughout the Empire by persons of all ranks. The Can- 
tonese think that to eat the flesh of dogs is to act in opposition 
to the will of the gods, and on many Buddhist temples I have 
seen placards calling upon the people not only to abstain from 
the flesh of bulls, goats, and swine, but from that also of dogs, 
as these are the faithful guardians of their masters' homes." 

The public marketing of dogs' flesh has been prohibited 
in Canton only from about the middle of 1915. It is exposed 
for sale openly in the butchers' shops in the suburbs to this 
day. In Quangtung Province, too, a dish said to have 
powerful protective properties against cold is made with a 
combination of the meat of snakes and cats, called by the 

27 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

figurative name of " Dragon-Tiger Soup." Hams cut from 
the dog may be eaten in some parts of China, but butchers' 
shops which sell the meat are now rare and of the poorest. 
Even the beggars who buy it shield their loss of " face " by 
calling the meat by the euphemistic name of " ground lamb " 
(ti-yang) as distinct from wool-sheep or hill-sheep (yang). 
The random foreign traveller will, however, have to fare far 
and make strict search before discovering a dish of dog-meat in 
China to-day. 

Buddhism, the State religion in most parts of India during 
the early centuries of our era, was a form of belief which 
separated from the main stock of the Hindu religion based 
on the Brahmanical scriptures still professed by seventy per 
cent, of the people of India. Hinduism is believed to have 
been introduced by India's early Aryan conquerors, who 
appear to have considered the dog to be unclean and its flesh 
to have been unfit for normal food. Among the earliest of 
Hindu legends is that of Manu, a divine being, founder of the 
human race, who was saved from a great flood which destroyed 
all other created beings. He was the inventor of sacrificial 
rites, the author and first teacher of legal maxims. He taught 
that a Brahmana must never eat " food given by intoxicated, 
angry, or sick men, nor that in which hair or insects are found, 
nor that which has been touched intentionally with the foot 
. . . nor that which has been pecked at by birds or touched 
by a dog,* nor the food given by a physician, a hunter, a cruel 
man, or one who eats the fragments of another's meal,f by 
trainers of hunting dogs, publicans, a washerman, a dyer, or a 
pitiless man." J Manu declared, however, that " the flesh 
of an animal killed by dogs is pure." " The porcupine, the 
hedgehog, the iguana, the rhinoceros, the tortoise, and the 

• " The Laws of Manu. Sacred Books of the East," edited by Max MuUer, 
vol. iv, p. 3o8. t Ibid., vol. iv, p. 212. % Ibid., vol. v, p. 131. 

28 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

hare they declared to be eatable ; likewise those domestic 
animals that have teeth in one jaw only, excepting camels." 
If a Brahmana " has a strong desire for meat he may make 
an animal of clarified butter or one of flour (and eat that)." 
In spite of the prohibition of dogs' flesh, food obtained by 
begging was always pure, and " Vamadeva, who well knew 
right and wrong, did not sully himself when, tormented by 
hunger, he desired to eat the flesh of a dog in order to save 
his life." " Visvamitra, who well knew what is right or 
wrong, approached, when he was tormented by hunger, (to 
eat) the haunch of a dog, receiving it from the hands of a 
Kandala." 

The dog was one of the five sacrificial animals of the Chinese, 
and similarly dogs were occasionally sacrificed by the Hindus. 
*' All the gods are concerned in the horse-sacrifice ; when he 
says ' I sprinkle thee for all the gods,' he makes all the gods 
take a concern in the horse-sacrifice. But his wicked enemy 
seeks to lay hold of him who performs the horse-sacrifice, and 
the horse is a thunderbolt ; having killed the four-eyed dog, 
he, with ' Undone is the man ! Undone is the dog ! ' — 
plunges it under the horse's feet." * 

The whimsical solemnity with which Chinese officials have 
been apt to lay down high-sounding and heavily-worded rules 
and regulations upon the most trivial subjects for the guidance 
of those desirous of avoiding the stigma of want of culture, 
and for the glory of the letter of the law, is illustrated by a 
further quotation from the " Book of Rites " setting forth the 
procedure in presentation and acceptance of dogs : " When 
honouring by the gift of a dog, it is to be led with the left 
hand." The commentator gravely adds : " The reason for 
leading with the left hand is that the right may be ready to 
restrain the dog from biting." f If acceptable, the re- 

* " Sacred Books of the East," vol. xliv, p. 279. f " Book of Rites," vol. i. 

29 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

cipient's representative was first to take the leading-rope, 
and then to ask the dog's name. 

As this procedure regulated the gift of house-dogs and 
hunting-dogs only, it is implied that gifts of edible dogs are 
not to be presented by hand, but must simply be sent to the 
kitchen, their points being judged, not by visual examination, 
but by the more searching test of the palate. 

It may be mentioned, as an interesting trait in the Oriental 
character, that the early Chinese in their w^ritings imagined 
themselves so much superior to foreigners that they alone 
could claim descent from human ancestors. They assigned 
canine origin to all neighbours except those of the South, to 
whom ophidian parentage was ascribed. Consequently, 
canine names were given to the peoples of the North, East, and 
West, and it was only in 1858 that Lord Elgin was able, by the 
cumbrous procedure of diplomacy, to obtain, as one of the 
stipulations of the Tientsin Treaty, " that henceforward the 
character ' I ' (having both in writing and by its verbal 
usage the significance of canine ancestry) shall not be applied 
to the Government or Subjects of Great Britain." Similar 
privileges are not enjoyed by the wild tribes of Western China, 
and the result is that they suffer under such dog-names as 
T'ung, Yao, and Lolo to this day. 

Kaempfer, who visited Japan in 1691 on behalf of the 
Dutch East India Company, remarks : " Since the now 
reigning Emperor (Kinsen, 1687) came to the throne, there 
are more dogs bred in Japan than, perhaps, in any one 
country whatever, and than there were before even in this 
Empire. They have their Masters, indeed, but lie about the 
streets and are very troublesome to passengers and travellers. 
Every street must by special command of the Emperor keep 
a certain number of these Animals and provide them with 
victuals. There are Huts built in every street, where they 
30 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

are taken care of when they fall sick. Those that die must be 
carried up to the tops of the mountains and hills, as the usual 
burying places, and very decently interred. Nobody may, 
under severe penalties, insult or abuse them, and to kill them 
is a capital crime whatever mischief they do. In this case 
notice of their misdemeanours must be given to their keepers, 
who are alone empowered to chastise and punish them. 
This extraordinary care for the preservation of the Dog- 
kind is the effect of a superstitious fancy of the now reigning 
Emperor,* who was born in the sign of the Dog (the reader 
is desired to take notice, that the Dog is one of the twelve 
Celestial Signs of the Japanese, as shall be shown hereafter 
in Book II, Chap. 2), and hath for this reason so great an 
esteem for this Animal, as the Great Roman Emperor 
Augustus Caesar is reported in Histories to have had for rams. 
The natives tell a pleasant tale on this head. A Japanese, 
as he was carrying up the dead carcase of a Dog to the top 
of a mountain, in order to its burial, grew impatient, grumbled 
and curs'd the Emperor's birthday and whimsical commands. 
His companion, sensible of the justice of his complaints, 
bid him hold his tongue and be quiet and, instead of swearing 
and cursing, return thanks to the Gods that the Emperor 
was not born in the Sign of the Horse, because in that case 
the load would have been much heavier." f 

The beliefs of the Aryansans, the ancient Persians who 
disguised gods as dogs, caused them to punish even more 
severely any crimes against dogs. It was safer to kill a man 
than to serve bad food to a shepherd dog. The Zend Avesta 
allots two hundred stripes for throwing to the ground a part 

* Thunberg does not entirely agree with Kaempfer. He says, " La veneration pour 
les chiens est bien antdrieure au temps de Kaempfer, et subsiste encore aujourd'hui ; 
je ne puis I'attribuer qu'aux services rendus par ces animaux les ancetres, a I'dpoque 
de leur etablissement dans ces lies. Thunberg, " Japon," vol. ii, 1796. 

f Kaempfer's " History of Japan," by J. G. Scheuzer, J. MacLehose, vol. i, p. 196. 

31 



V 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

of a dog's carcase no bigger than two ribs, thirty stripes were 
the penalty for throwing down a bone as large as the top joint 
of a man's little finger. 

Though the Chinese, unlike the Egyptians, have never 
worshipped the dog, and have seldom used it in sacrificial 
ceremony,* they have allowed it to enter into religious 
ceremonial, and it has secured no mean place among the 
legends of the superstitious. 

In the Hatamen, one of the main streets of Peking, stands an 
Imperial Temple recently reduced to small dimensions. 
This temple is the oldest in the city. It is said to date from 
the T'ang Dynasty, and is dedicated to the god Erh Lang, the 
Chinese St. George, famous for his prowess in the extermina- 
tion of dragons. Erh Lang is the protector of dogs, and 
possesses a magic dragon-slaying sword. He is owner of the 
dog which howls in the sky, and which, like the Fenris Wolf, 
eats the sun. This dog is known to Europeans on account of 

* J. F. Hewitt, Journ. R. As. Soc, 1890, p. 441. " Another animal which was 
sacrificed in other countries, but not so far as I can discover in India, was the dog. 
The history of this sacrifice seems to throw most valuable light on ancient chronology 
and the course of religious evolution. The dog was certainly a sacred animal to the 
Northern Akkadians, as it is represented in their mythology by the four hounds of 
Bel-Merodach." (Sayce Hibbert Lectures, 1887, pp. 288, 289.) But it is as the 
animal sacred to the fire god Adar that it appears as a sacrificial victim in Asia Minor, 
Greece and Italy. Adar, or Uras, was at Nipur ' the god of glowing fire,' and was a 
most popular deity at Nineveh among the Northern Assyrians, but was not a favourite 
with the Southern or Semitic Babylonians {Ibid., pp. 152-54). This god became in 
Asia Minor the Tyrian Hercules called Melgarth, and there he was especially associated 
with dogs. Dogs were also sacred to the Athenian Hercules, as is shown by the 
name Cynosarges, or dog's yard, where his shrine was situated. According to .(Elian, 
sacred dogs accompanied the Sicilian god Adranus, who has been identified with 
Adar. But it is in the worship of Ares in Greece, and Mars in Rome, that we find 
the dog actually sacrificed. Dogs were sacrificed to Ares in Sparta, and the Latins 
oifered a red dog to Mars at the Arvalia, to prevent the crops taking fire. The symbol 
of Ares was Sirius, the dog-star, and there thus appears every reason to connect him 
with the Akkadian Uras, the god of glowing fire. The development of this god into 
Hercules with the club, shows that the god of fire was originally the god of the fire- 
stick, who in the ancient triad took the place of the phallic father. 

" Throughout the Rigveda and Brahmanas the dog and Agni are both regarded as 
the messenger of the gods." 

32 




ALTAR OF ERH LANG, PEKING 



To face ^.32 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

the noisy manner in which, up to recent years, when the sun 
or moon stood in danger of eclipse, the people attempted to 
dissuade him from his celestial meal. 

The Chinese term for an eclipse is still the " eating up " 
of the sun or moon. The demonstrations which, up to the 
inauguration of modern reforms in China, took place at 
an eclipse were described by Gray : 

" Five months prior to the eclipse the head of the Li-poo 
Board at Pekin, in obedience to the commands of the Em- 
peror, forwards a despatch to the chief rulers of each province, 
and through him to the chief magistrate of each prefecture 
and each county, requesting them at the approaching 
eclipse to save the sun. At the time all the mandarins, 
attired in black robes, assemble at the official residence 
of the chief magistrate. When they have arranged them- 
selves before an altar erected in the courtyard of the yamen, 
the chief magistrate burns incense on the altar and beats 
a drum three times. At this stage all the officials present 
fall down before the altar and perform the kow-tow. The 
ceremony on the part of the officials having been brought^ 
to a close,. a number of underlings continue, until the eclipse 
is over, to beat drums and tom-toms with the view of 
frightening and thereby preventing the Tien-Kow of 
heavenly dogs f from devouring the sun. During this din, 
priests of the respective sects of Buddha and Tao stand 
before the altar and chant appropriate prayers. Upon the 
tops of all the dwelling-houses and shops of a Chinese city, 
men are also stationed who, by means of drums, tom-toms, 
and horns add to the general din. The same ceremonies 
take place during an eclipse of the moon. Formerly in 
other lands, as in China to-day, an eclipse of the sun or 
moon was beheld with terror. To rescue the moon from 
the spell of the enchanter, other nations, like the Chinese 

c 33 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

of the present day, had recourse to the blowing of horns 
and the beating of drums and brazen pots and pans. This 
ridiculous custom was evidently in full force m the day 
of Juvenal, who alludes to it in a description of a brawling 
woman — 

' Forbear your drums and trumpets, if you please,^ 
Her voice alone, the labouring moon can ease." 

The importance attached by the ancients to prompt 
measures for countering this danger is shown by the fate 
meted out to two inaccurate astronomers of antiquity as 
recorded in the Classics : " Now here are He and Ho. They 
have entirely subverted their virtue and are sunk and lost in 
wine They have been the first to allow the regulations of 
heaven to get into disorder, putting far from them their 
proper business. On the first day of the last month of autumn 
the sun and moon did not meet harmoniously m Fang. 
The blind musicians beat their drums, the inferior officers 
and common people bustled and ran about. He and Ho, how- 
ever heard nothing and knew nothing. The statutes of the 
government say ' when they anticipate the time let them 
be put to death without mercy ; when they are behind the 
time let them be put to death without mercy.' " t 

This mythical dog is quaintly described in a popular work 
on the Chinese minor deities. " The How Tien Ch uan, or 
Heavenly Barking Dog (belonging to the deity Erh Lang), 
when sublimed from the earthly state, became a thin-bodied or 
coursing dog, having the size of an elephant, and the likeness 
of the strong and fierce owl which eats its parents Its 
head is as brass and its neck as iron. Terrible in battle, its 
antagonist, however fierce and powerful, is quickly consumed, 
even unto the last of his bones." To this idea of the existence 



* " China," J. H. Gray, vol. i, p. 267, 1878. „ , „r u •; 

t Legge's Chinese Classics, " Shoo King." Part III, Book IV, chap. u. 



34 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

of a celestial dog may be due the practice, said to be current 
in parts of China, of carrying in processions praying for rain 
in time of drought, a big dog housed in a palanquin and dressed 
like a man,* 

It is probable that this celestial terror is identical in Chinese 
mythology with the heavenly dog which has the sinister re- 
putation of trying to snatch children from their homes. In 
many temples there is an image of the god Ch'ang Hsien, and 
near him are his children. He is represented as shooting an 
arrow at a dog appearing in a cloud. f Doolittle furnishes the 
following explanation for the worship of this deity by the 
women of China : " Some women are born on days which are 
represented by the chronological or horary character which 
means * dog.' These women after marriage and before they 
give birth to a child, must procure a picture of the genius 
shooting the * heavenly dog ' and worship by the burning of 
incense and candles. The child then may be expected to live. 
... In a celebrated temple located outside the East gate of 
the city of Foochow is an image of a large dog. It is currently 
reported that if bread, cakes, or biscuits made of wheat 
flour are placed in the mouth of this image and afterwards 
eaten by children, they will prevent or cure the colic"! 

So great was the reputed power of the magic sword and of 
the How Tien Ch'uan that, upon the best astrological advice, 
the Chinese Emperors of the recently defunct Ching Dynasty, 
being personifications of the dragon and also of the sun, 
forbore in their yearly visits to the Temple of the Sun, out- 
side the East Gate of Peking, to take the nearest route, 
I>antern Street, which faces the Erh Lang Temple. This 
route would have brought the Son of Heaven upon his 



* " Dog." " Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics." 

t Fung Chen Pang, " Anthology of the Deified." 

I " Social Life of the Chinese," by the Rev. Justus Doolittle. 



35 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

Dragon Throne into a dual menace — that of being smitten 
with the magic sword and eaten by the " Dog that Barks in 
the Heavens." 

This Chinese mythical dog may be akin to the Aryan hedge- 
dog, having a long and thin muzzle, the prickles on whose 
back were compared to the rays of the sun piercing the veil of 
darkness. " Whosoever, O Zarathustra ! shall kill the dog 
with the prickly back, with the long and thin muzzle, the 
hedge-dog, which evil-speaking people call the Duzaka, kills 
his own soul for nine generations, nor shall he find a way 
over the Kinvad bridge unless he has, while alive, atoned for 
his sin by oifering up a sacrifice to Sraosha." * 

The idea of the heavenly dog appears to have reached the 
Chinese and the Hindus from a common source. From the 
fifth Brahmana we read : " (i) He observes the fast thinking 
' to-day is the day of new moon ' ; and then that moon is seen 
in the West. But, indeed, he (the moon) is that heavenly 
dog : he watches the sacrificer's cattle (to seize them) and 
that would not be good for the cattle in the case of the owner 
who did not make amends . . . and through fear of that 
' downcoming moon,' as they think him to be, (2) they 
steal away into the shade. And, therefore, indeed, people 
call that burning pain ' svalukita ' (dog's clutch)." (10) " A 
bow with three arrows he gives as dakshina ; for with the bow 
a dog is driven away : he thus drives away that dog (the 
moon) when he gives a bow with three arrows as dakshina." f 
The substance of the Brahmana legend is that certain demons 
piled up a fire-altar in order to ascend by it to heaven. Indra 
joined them, adding a brick of his own. When they had 
climbed to heaven Indra pulled out his brick and the demons 
fell. They became spiders, all but two, who flew up and 

* " Sacred Books of the East," Zend Avesta, vol. iv, p. 152. 
t " Sacred Books of the East," F. Max Miiller, vol. xliv, p. 10 

36 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

became Syama and Sabala, the two heavenly dogs, otherwise 
known as the two four-eyed dogs of Yama, stated by Bloom- 
field to be the sun and moon * 

Similarly according to the Hindu belief, more ancient than 
Buddhism, the dog is placed on the same plane as man. 
" The wise look upon a Brahmana possessed of learning and 
humility, on a cow, an elephant, a dog and a Svapaka, as 
alike ".f Similarly, as there was no essential difference 
between man and beast, the beast must answer for its 
guilt. The mad dog or the dog which bit without bark- 
ing, which wounded a sheep or man, paid for it as for wilful 
murder.J 

Erh Lang in Peking is considered to be the protector of 
the canine race. To this day, on the first and fifteenth days 
of the month, native owners of dogs may be seen worship- 
ping at the altar of the god. If their dogs are in danger of 
death they bring miniatures in clay and lay them on his altar, 
so that the god may, through the presence of a substitute, 
suffer the owner to keep his pet yet a Uttle longer. It is 
possible that in this may be found a survival of the old idea 
that not only a curse but also a blessing pronounced upon a 
dummy counterfeit has effect upon the original. 

Kaempfer refers to a Japanese counterpart to the dog- 
protecting deity, when referring to a visit to Fusimi, a suburb 
of Miaco, on the first of the month : " The temples which we 
had on our right, as we went up, being built in the ascent of the 
neighbouring hills, were illuminated with many lamps, and 
the priests, beating some bells with iron hammers, made 
such a noise as could be heard at a considerable distance. 
I took notice of a large white Dog, perhaps made of plaster, 
which stood upon an altar on our left, in a neatly adorned 

* " Sacred Books of the East," vol. xlii, p. 500-, f Ibid., vol. viii, p. 65. 

\ Ibid., vol. iv, p. 159. 

37 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

chappel, or small temple, which was consecrated to the 
Patron of the Dogs." * 

In crediting the dog with some sort of a soul, Buddhism 
permits to the dog a closer relationship with man than does 
Christianity, which in the matter of salvation gives to the 
canine race not even the proverbial " dog's chance," and, 
indeed, claiming to himself a sole exclusive heaven, allows no 
closer association than did St. Bernard of Clairvaux when, 
preaching in the twelfth century, he likened the love of angels 
to man as being similar to that of a man's friendship to his dog, 
on the principle of the proverb, " Love me, love my dog," at 
the same time bringing into comparison the love of Deity to 
man and the love of man to his dog.f Buddhists, indeed, 
recognize no essential difference, on spiritual grounds, be- 
tween dog and man. Their faith is like that of the Indian who 

' asks no angel's wings, no seraph's fire : 

But thinks, admitted to that equal sky. 
His faithful dog shall bear him company. J 

In the Buddhist cycle the spirit of man commonly passes into 
the form of a dog. While mediaeval Christianity represented 
dogs, indicating fidelity during earthly life, and lions, for 
valour, at the feet of their owners in many old brasses and stone 
effigies in churches, the Buddhist placed numerous repre- 
sentations of the dog in clay and pottery in early Chinese 
tombs, with a view to the retention of their services in the 
life to come. Christian lore gives earthly glory to the dog of 
St. Roch, a familiar beastie in French churches, honoured 
for the succouring of his master smitten with plague. The 
good Buddhist, to demonstrate that dog and man are merely 
units in the cycle of transmigration, will quote the conversion 

* " The History of Japan," Kaempfer, Maclehose, vol. iii, p. i6. 
j- " Angeli amant nos, quia nos Christus amavit. Dicitur certe vulgari proverbio ; 
qui me amat, amat et canem meum." 

t " The Indian and his Dog," Alex. Pope. 

38 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

of the owner of a white dog recorded in the Scriptures. 
" At Stravasti, Buddha entered into the house of one Tu-T'i, 
who was absent from home. Upon the divan a white dog was 
eating from a bowl. At sight of Buddha it leapt to the ground 
and barked at the Holy One. Buddha said : ' Miser, how 
deep is thy degradation ! ' The dog betook itself to a corner 
in dejection. When Tu-T'i returned and saw his dog so 
sad he asked the cause of its misery. The servants replied, 
' Buddha has done this.' Tu-T'i was angered and asked 
Buddha for an explanation. Buddha said : ' I did but tell 
him the truth. This animal is thy dead father. Born a dog, 
as punishment for his avarice, he still guards his riches. 
Order him to reveal the treasure which he has hidden, even 
from thee, his son.' Tu-T'i returned to his home and said 
to the dog, ' As thou hast been my father in thy previous 
incarnation, all of that which was yours is now mine by 
right. Show me thy hidden treasure.' The dog crept 
beneath the divan and began scratching the earth. There 
Tu-T'i dug and discovered great treasure. Forthwith he 
was converted to Buddha." * 

The lamas of Thibet suggest that the miserable pariah- 
dogs of their country are the re-incarnation of priests who 
have been faithless to their vows. The same idea may underly 
the inclusion of a dog, white for ill-luck and mourning, in the 
scapegoat party which is recorded by Nain Singh as being 
annually expelled from Lhasa. " On the 29th day of the first 
month a man is selected who is called the Logon gyalpo (or 
carrier of one year's ill-luck), who becomes a sort of scapegoat 
for the sins of the people. For a week he perambulates 
Lhasa as a sort of clown, with his face painted half black and 
half white, and is permitted extraordinary license. He shakes 
a black yak's tail over the heads of the people, thus transferring 

* L. Wieger, " Bouddhisme," vol. xi, p. 109. 

39 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

from them to himself the full measure of their ill-luck. Then 
he receives certain presents from the government — a white 
horse, a white dog, a white bird, with other smaller gifts of 
provisions and offerings from the people. Finally, he is 
hunted out of the town amidst the yells of the mob, towards 
the Samye monastery, where he may (if he survives his 
treatment at the hands of the people) be accommodated in the 
Lhakang, or dead house."* 

Certain animals, such as foxes and dogs, are considered 
by Buddhists to be able to appear in human shape and to play 
the part of the were-wolf, or incubus, of mediaeval legend. 
Consequently, it is not surprising to find in Chinese and 
Japanese, just as in European legend, that " the devil appears 
in the horrible shape of some black dog or other frightful 
hairy fraybuggs," and that the black dog which sits upon the 
back of the sulky, Faust's black poodle, the Gabriel Hounds 
which hunt along the tree-tops on dark and stormy nights, 
and Sir Walter Scott's Mauthe dog — a " large black spaniel 
with curled shaggy hair " — have analogies in Chinese super- 
stition, often as intergrowths with the old Chinese empirical 
system of natural science called Feng Shui, used by Chinese 
astrologers and diviner fortune-tellers to the present time. 
They classify all beasts of astrological importance as subject to 
the yang (male) influence of the sun — this category includes 
the dog — or the ying (female) influence of the moon — com- 
prising the cat. The Chinese do not appear, however, to use 
the traditional cat and dog antipathy in hate-charms as in 
Palestine, where the putting of hatred between the members 
of a family is attained by the giving of one half of the egg of a 
black hen to a dog and the other to a cat, with the recitation of 
appropriate charm-words ; nor have they the old legend of 
Palestine, which states that once upon a time when the world 

* " Tibet the Mysterious," by Sir Thomas Holdich, p. 310. 
40 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

was young, to each and to every kind of animal a duty was 
assigned. The dog and cat were relieved of menial duty, 
because of the faithfulness of the one and the cleanliness of 
the other, and a written document was given them in attesta- 
tion thereof, and the dog took charge of it. He buried it 
where he kept his stock of old bones, but this privilege of 
exemption so roused the envy of the horse, ass, and ox, that 
they bribed the rat to burrow underground and destroy the 
charter. Since the loss of this document the dog has been 
liable, on account of his carelessness, to be tied or chained 
up by his master, and the cat has never forgiven him." * 

It must be remembered that in matters of superstition 
many Chinese still roam in the dark mazes through which the 
mediaeval astrologers, soothsayers, and diviners led our 
bewildered ancestors. A dog which is completely black is 
believed to be able to frighten away spirits, and to this day a 
Chinese witch-doctor who wishes to expel a particularly 
malignant devil will ruthlessly slay a black dog in which not 
one white hair is found, gather its innocent blood into a bowl, 
and sprinkle this gore before the spirit with a wooden sword, 
accompanying the ceremonial with mumbled prayers, charms, 
and spells to support the sacrifice and exorcise the fiend to 
eternal perdition. Not in China only has the dog been made 
to suffer for utilitarian mankind. " To tame a lion, they used 
to beat a little dogge before him." " What, man ! " says 
Shakespeare, "there are ways to recover the general again: 
a punishment more in policy than in malice ; even so as one 
would beat his offenceless dog to affright an imperious 
lion."t 

* Hanawer, Palest., " Animal Folklore," Palest. Exp. Fund, 1904, p. 265, 
f This may throw light upon a curious passage dealing with the use of hunting- 
tigers in Marco Polo's narrative, " The Grand Khan has many leopards and lynxes 
kept for the purpose of chasing deer, and also many lions, which are larger than the 
Babylonian lions, have good skins, and of a handsome colour, being streaked length- 

41 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

Archdeacon Gray * describes the Taoist ceremony per- 
formed for the expulsion of spirits inducing suicide. " After 
the priest has made a great many signs and performed the 
kow-tow, he receives from the inmates a small black dog, 
together with a chopper and a block ; and when he has severed 
its tail from its body with a sharp blow, the wretched animal, 
with a cord round its neck, is led, or rather dragged, piteously 
howling, by the head of the family into every nook and corner 
of the house. It is then taken to the front door and kicked 
into the open street. The bleeding and yelping cur is sup- 
posed to frighten away the evil spirits, and to pursue them in 
their flight through the streets. By way of purifying the 
house, the priest then walks through it with a brass pan 
containing a burning mixture made of sulphur, saltpetre, and 
other inflammable ingredients." This custom may be com- 
pared for barbarity with the old German and Scandinavian 
custom of hanging dogs with criminals as a symbolical mark 
of disgrace and as an aggravation of the punishment .f 

The following is quoted as an instance of the fantastic 
shapes into which the professors of Feng Shui are willing to 
distort their crude theories in the name of science : 

" The influences J of the Five Elements § attack and impair 
each other, and bloodthirsty animals conquer and overpower 
each other ; how are these phenomena to be explained ? The 

ways, with white, black, and red stripes. They are active in seizing boars, wild oxen 
and asses, bears, stags, roebucks, and other beasts that are objects of the sport. It 
is an admirable sight, when the lion is let loose, in pursuit of the animal, to observe 
the savage eagerness and speed in which he overtakes it. His Majesty has them con- 
veyed for this purpose in cages placed upon cars ; and along with them is confined a 
little dog, with which they become familiarized." Marsden " Travels of Marco 
Polo," 1818, p. 338. 

* Notes a?id Queries, 2nd Series, xii., p. 510. 

t "China," J. H. Gray, vol. i., p. 336, Macmillan, 1878. 

j Groot, " The Religious Systems of China," vol. iii., p. 988, from " Discussions 
and Criticism from the Chinese ' Lun Heng ' of the Han Dynasty," chap. iii. 

§ Wood, wind, fire, water, and earth. 

42 



DOG-LORE AND SUPERSTITION 

answer is : The branch Yin corresponds to the element wood, 
whose animal is tiger ; Hsii appertains to earth, whose animal 
is the dog ; Ch'en and Wei likewise appertain to earth, and 
their animals are the cow and goat. Now as wood overpowers 
earth, it follows that the tiger subdues dogs, cows, and goats. 
Hai appertains to water, whose animal is the pig. Sze corre- 
sponds to fire, whose animal is the Serpent. Hence, since 
water conquers fire, pigs can devour snakes. Tsze is identical 
with water, whose animal is the rat. Wu appertains to fire, 
whose animal is the horse. Since fire is destroyed by water, 
should a horse devour a rat it will fail to relieve itself and die 
of a swollen belly." 



43 



CHAPTER III 
DOG-BREEDING 

AS was natural in an agricultural people, dog-breeding 
found early encouragement among the Chinese, and 
^ no doubt the three heads, house, hunting and 
edible, into which the "Book of Rites " classified the canine race, 
owned several subdivisions, especially as regards the sporting 
dogs. The early Chinese emperors went to excess in their 
love of the chase, and the numerous embassies exchanged 
with foreign rulers gave them every opportunity of intro- 
ducing at early periods rare dogs from neighbouring states, 
including perhaps even such breeds as the greyhound, the 
bulldog, the terrier and the slow-hound, which existed in 
England at the time of the Roman occupation, and were of 
such quality as to add zest to the gladiatorial sports and 
gave to England not a little of its fame among the Romans, a 
fame destined to be increased by descendants of those breeds. 
During the Tudor and Stuart periods the renown of British 
dogs, especially mastiffs, was such that they were used as 
political presents to many European countries, as well as to 
the Near and Far East. In 15 17 King Henry VIII thanked 
the Marquis of Mantua for the horses which were being got 
ready for him, and promised to recompense the Marquis 
" with English horses and dogs." Nine years later Henry 
sent to Francis of France " eight very handsome sporting 
dogs." In 1522 the Duke of Urbino's envoy at Henry's 
Court wrote that he had not forgotten the " little dog " 

44 



DOG-BREEDING 

(cagnolo), and would do his best to obtain one. In 1540 
Lady Lisle wrote to Madame du Bours in reply to a request 
for poodles for the crossbow or hackbut, " I will send 
to England for poodles (barbets), for I can get none in this 
town except one which I send for your son. He is very 
good at retrieving the head or bolt of a crossbow, both in 
water and on land, and will fetch a tennis ball or a glove 
put on the end of a stick, and other tricks." In 1546 
Henry VIII sent to Mary of Hungary " greyhounds and 
running dogs," and in the same year he made the French 
queen " the gladdest woman in the world " by a present of 
" hobbies, greyhounds, hounds and great dogs." In this 
year, too, Anne of Cleves, who is credited by Lady Lytton 
with possible introduction of the liver-and-white toy spaniel 
into England, sent two brace of English greyhounds to her 
brother, the Duke of Cleves.* In 1559 the envoy of the 
Duke of Mantua at Queen Elizabeth's Court wrote : " The 
Queen did not act thus with the French Lords, to whom she 
gave gifts more than splendid, viz. To Mons. Montmorency : 
. . . divers dogs — mastiffs, great and small, hounds (scurieri) 
and setters — a quantity of every sort." These were no doubt 
reared in the royal kennels in the Isle of Dogs, near the palace 
of Greenwich. The breeding of fine mastiffs was probably 
due to a state of public opinion which breathed the sentiment : 

Let dogs delight to bark and bite, 
For God hath made them so. 
Let bears and lions growl and fight, 
For 'tis their nature too.f 

and considered dog-fighting, together with bull and bear- 
baiting, to be little less than national pastimes. J Bull- 

* " Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIIL" f Isaac Watts. 

X " The fee of the Master of the Cocks [under James I] exceeded the united 
salaries of two Secretaries of State." 

" The Master of the Buckhounds, who is also one of the Ministry, ranks next to 
the Master of the Horse." " Murray's Dictionary," vol. vi, p. 213. 

45 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

baiting, in which sport a tethered bull with blunted or 
padded horns was pitted against dogs which he sometimes 
tossed thirty or forty feet high, was a pastime almost national 
in importance for centuries. Pepys remarks in 1666 that he 
" saw some good sport of the bull's tossing of the dogs, one 
into the very boxes." * 

In 1557 the envoy of the Duke of Mantua, after remarking 
that in the Tower of London " there is a seraglio in which 
from grandeur they keep lions and tigers and cat-lions," goes 
on to say that " there is the bear garden in Southwark, on 
the banks of the Thames, where they keep big dogs to rear 
for breeding, and to exercise them there are bears, wolves 
and bulls ; so for such purposes they become very good 
dogs {huonissimi cam)." In 1608 to 1610 James I sent dogs 
as presents to the princes of Anhalt and Brunswick, also to 
the Ambassador of Brandenburg. In 1614 the Venetian 
Ambassador in Spain reported that there had recently arrived 
from James of England a present to Philip of Spain including 
" palfreys, dogs for hunting lions, arquebuses and sables and 
crossbows." In 1614 General Saris was employed by the 
East India Company in opening up trade with Japan, and 
was received in a very friendly manner by certain of the 
Japanese feudal lords. As a result of his observations he 
wrote to the " Captain Generall of the English appoynted to 
Japan " that he should " make some small present to the 
daimio of Hirado and Iki, and to his son. The fittest things 
for the owld Kinge wilbe a vest of delicatt fine blacke cloth 

* These barbarities cannot compare with those recorded by travellers in mediaeval 
India. " Sometimes this manner of execution [tearing asunder by elephants] is used 
by the Kinge [of Agra] and great men, Alsoe throwne to doggs bredd for that purpose. 
Other tymes to wilde beasts, Yea, Sometymes appoyntinge certain men to teare the 
offender with their teeth, of which Cuttwall Chaun was said to bee one, Commaunded 
thereto by Jehangueere [Jahangir] because hee was a bigg fellowe and had a good 
sett of teeth." " The Travels of Peter Mundy," Hakluyt Society, ser. II, vol. xxv, 
P- 232. 
46 



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Pi 



DOG-BREEDING 

lyned through with black coniskinns made sweete ; to his 
Sonne a fair headpeec and gorgett, a box of all such thinges 
as ar belonging to a faulconer, quayle calls, a mastife, a watter 
spaniell and a faire grayhound." * In 1618 Queen Anne 
sent six horses and thirty couple of hounds to the King of 
France. In 1623 James presented Louis with another pack, 
and in 1627 Louis XIII intimated to his sister, Henrietta 
Maria Queen of England, that he would expect four hunting 
dogs of her.f 

In ancient China all treasures, including pearls, jade, or 
rare animals, were considered to be Imperial property, and 
their producers were bound to offer them in the first instance 
to the Emperor, who was accustomed to give generous 
reward, by official ^©motion or otherwise, in return. The 
breeding of dogs possessed another incentive to the early 
Chinese, not known to the inhabitants of the West, for in, 
China considerable" importance was attached, on superstitious 
grounds, to the colour and markings l>red in dogs. -For- 
tunate markings might bring honour to a family and to its 
ancestors. This superstitious belief was encouraged, if not 
originated, by geomancy or " Feng Shui." Similarly, the 
reputed occurrence of a Chilin or phcentx was the most 
auspicious of events, and the donor of such rare and precious 
natural products to the Chinese Emperors was always richly 
rewarded. The appearance of certain markings, such as a 
black or yellow coat in conjunction with a white head, or two 
white forelegs in a black dog, was hailed as sure presage of 
official appointment. Similar superstitions survive to this 
day in quaint couplets and proverbs which even now influence 
the breeding of dogs. In pigeon-breeding the Chinese have 
progressed a step farther than with their dogs. They have 

* " Voyage of Capt. J. Saris to Japan," Hakluyt Soc, App. A., p. 209, 
f " Calendar of State Papers, Venice." 

47 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

evolved many species vv^hich have constant colour charac- 
teristics, each M^ith its special highly imaginative Chinese 
name, and each favoured by particular fanciers. 

Hard times and the overthrovv^ of the Manchus have, 
however, done much to extinguish Chinese interest in breed- 
ing dogs. Had the Peking breed remained as fashionable as 
it was in the early days of the nineteenth century, it seems 
probable that the Chinese would have succeeded in per- 
petuating several varieties, each with characteristic markings, 
instead of the one race now produced in Europe and America, 
which is an amalgamation of the characteristics of several, 
bred irrespective of markings. To the Chinese, saturated 
with superstition, folk-lore and literary myths, every colour 
has a value, and every marking serves to crystallize some 
imaginative thought which can convey little to the foreigner 
ignorant of Chinese underlying thought. 

" Should a man breed a white dog with tiger markings," 
remarks one of the old geomantic books, " he shall shortly 
become an official entrusted with 10,000 piculs (roughly 
600 tons) of rice, from the Government." * 

The ancient " Book of the Five Elements," rather more 
exacting in its requirements, proves that dogs of various 
colours existed in early times in China, as in Assyria : f 
" Should a man breed : 

" A black dog with white ears, he shall become rich and 

noble. 

" A white dog with a yellow head, his family will become 

prosperous. 

" A yellow dog with white tail, his family shall have 

officials in it in every generation. 

* " Ke Chih Ching Yuan " (Clear spring of ancient knowledge). 

f The Assyrians and Babylonians " were acquainted with dogs of various colours, 
for they derived omens from piebald dogs, yellow dogs, black dogs, white dogs and 
the rest." " Mesopotamian Archaeology," by Percy S. P. Handcock, Macmillan, 1912 
p. 19. 

48 




CHINESE DOG-BREEDEK, LUNG FU SSU MARKET, PEKING 



To face p. 4i 



DOG-BREEDING 

" A black dog with white fore-legs, many male children 

will be born to the family. 

" A yellow dog with white fore-legs, he will have good luck. 

" The breeding of a white dog with a black head is lucky, 

and will bring a man riches. 

"A white dog with a black tail will cause the family 

through all generations to ride in chariots." * 

With these old superstitious beliefs may be compared the 
ancient Parsee rite for expulsion of the corpse-drug from the 
dead by means of a dog having two spots above the eyes or 
of a white dog having yellow ears. " As soon as this dog 
has looked at the dead," remarks the ritual, " the Drug flees 
back to hell in the shape of a fly.f 

Numerous historians refer to the care bestowed by the 
Emperors of the Tang and Sung Dynasties upon their dogs. 
These Emperors, unlike the English kings, who when resident 
at Greenwich kept their sporting kennels at the Isle of Dogs, 
appear to have bred their dogs in the palace, and even in the 
Imperial ancestral temple. Under the Emperor Wan Li 
(1563-1620) this was prohibited, and one of the eunuchs, 
guilty of keeping a small dog in this temple, escaped severe 
punishment only on payment of a substantial " squeeze." 

In Europe remarkable freedom was allowed to dog-owners 
by the mediaeval Church. The office of " dog-whipper," 
whose holder's duty was to keep the congregation's dogs in 
order while in church during services, was held in numerous 
churches in England, and in some persisted beyond the 
middle of the nineteenth century. On the Continent, too, it 
was customary to allow dogs to enter sacred buildings with 
their masters. " At Avignon the dogs made love or war, and 
barked in the churches at pleasure." J 

* In ancient China only members of families in which there were officials were 
allowed to ride in carts, 
f " Sacred Books of the East," Zend Avesta, vol. iv, p. Ixxxvii. 
X Notes and Queries, p. 343, October 1897., 

D 49 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

The Chinese Emperors used their expeditions into the 
hunting-parks for the training of their armies and for demon- 
strating their power to the tribes of Mongolia. Each of the 
soldiers became a huntsman or beater for the occasion. 
Similarly, though it does not appear likely that all of the 
vast number of dogs used possessed powers of scent, any 
more than do the great majority of dogs to be found in the 
villages of the hunting-parks at the present time, every 
available dog was pressed into service. 

Friar Odoric, who spent three years between 1322 and 1328 
in Peking, " took the opportunity to make diligent inquiry 
from Christians, Saracens and all kinds of idolaters," who all 
told him with one voice that " the king's players alone 
amount to XIII tumans (10,000 men) ; that, of those others 
who keep the dogs and wild beasts and fowls, there be 
XV tumans ; of leeches to take charge of the royal Person 
there be 400 idolaters, eight Christians and one Saracen." * 

Marco Polo further speaks of two barons as " having 
charge of the hounds, fleet and slow, and of the mastiffs," t 
and states that each of them maintained a body of 10,000 men 
dressed alike, the one lot in livery of red, and the other in 
blue, to accompany the Great Khan to the chase : " Of the 
20,000 men there were 2000, each of whom was in charge 
of one or more dogs, and when the Prince goes a-hunting, 
one of these barons with his 1 0,000 men and something 
like 5000 dogs ;J: goes towards the right, whilst the other goes 
towards the left with his party in like manner. The whole 
line extends for a full day's journey, and no animal can 
escape them. Truly it is a glorious sight to see the working 
of the dogs and the huntsmen on such an occasion, and as 

* " Cathay and the Way Thither," Yule. 

j- " Marco Polo," Marsden's edition, translated from the Latin. 
X " Marco Polo," Marsden's edition reads " the dogs of different descriptions 
. . . are not fewer than five thousand." 

50 



DOG-BREEDING 

the Lord rides a-fowling across the plains you will see this 
big hunt come tearing up, one pack after a bird, and another 
pack with a stag or some other beast, as it may hap, and 
running the game down, now on this side and now on that, 
so that it is really a most delightful sport and spectacle." * 

The JVIing Emperors devoted too much of their time to the 
breeding of cats. One of the eunuchs registered a protest 
against the practice, complaining that the cats were so noisy 
that the Imperial children were caused to sicken and die. He 
remarks that the cats should have been confined to special 
quarters, and suggests that the Emperors encouraged their 
sons to interest themselves in the breeding of cats and pigeons 
because, surrounded by eunuchs and women, they might fail 
to realize the importance of rearing children. 

Critics of Chinese success in dog-breeding may point to 
the absence of high development of powers of scent in 
Chinese dogs. It must be remembered, however, that the 
British pointer is a dog of modern times, produced since 
1650, derived from a foreign race, the development of whose 
powers has resulted from careful selection, and whose very 
existence is due to the fowling-piece. As evidenced by 
mention of sporting dogs in the " Book of Rites," written in 
the seventh century B.C., the Chinese vie with the Romans 
for the honour of being the first to record use of the dog in 
the chase. " The first hint of the employment of the dog in 
the pursuit of other animals is given by Oppian in his 
" Cynegetica." He attributes it to Pollux about 200 years 
after promulgation of the Levitical law." f 

Breeds have become stable in England only in recent years 
with the fixing of standards and the use of shows, started in 
London in 1836 J and almost accidentally at Newcastle in 



• 'I Marco Polo," Yule. •]• Encychpadia Britannica, " The Dog." 

X " Toy Dogs and their Ancestors," p. loo. 



51 






DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

1859, which have become possible on account of modern 
improvements in transport. That the Chinese should have 
been able to secure high specialization of breed in pigeons, 
goldfish, lap-dogs and cats is a strong testimony to their 
realization of the importance of selection at a time when skill 
in the same art was less developed in Europe. 

Development of the breeds of Pekingese dogs probably 
owes more to the efforts of the palace eunuchs than to those 
of their Imperial masters. An Emperor such as Tao Kuang 
and his consort would, by their enthusiasm for breeding 
pigeons and dogs, set the fashion, and the eunuchs, more 
than a thousand in number, living in the " Forty-eight 
Places " of the palace, would vie with one another in endea- 
vouring to breed to the standards set up, with a view to 
securing either favour from their superiors by presentation 
of good specimens, or profit from officials similarly inclined, 
by sale. 

Shows, breeding to closely defined points, and the keeping 
of careful pedigrees, have never existed in China. The only 
recognized standards to which dogs have been bred are 
those contained in the dog-books of each Imperial master, as 
painted by the Court painters. Very few of these books 
have been allowed to leave the Imperial and princes' palaces. 
Each Emperor caused illustrations of his favourite dogs to be 
made by the Court painters in books or on scrolls, and in 
this way was set the current fashion in breeding. The 
highest compliment a Chinese breeder in Peking can give is 
to judge that a specimen is good enough to "go into the 
book," that is to say, into an Imperial dog-book. Such of 
these books as have been obtained portray dogs closely 
resembling the " Pekingese " type, as also the " Shih-tzu " 
dog and the " Pug." 

The old belief recorded of Jacob when he " took him rods 

52 



DOG-BREEDING 

of green poplar, and of the hazel and chestnut tree, and pilled 
white strakes in them, and made the white appear which was 
still in the rods " and used them in breeding, still persists 
both in Tibet and China. The Tibetan Lamas state that 
images of the Tibetan lion are used in breeding the lion-dog. 
The eunuchs of the Peking palace use pictures of good dogs 
and dog-scrolls with the same intent. 

The late Empress Dowager bred her pet dogs chiefly 
with a view to developing symmetrical markings. There 
appears little doubt that both she and her predecessors 
strongly encouraged the lion-dog idea on account of the 
implied comparison of themselves with Buddha. The " Old 
Buddha " herself was, according to Miss Carl, strongly 
against the development of any abnormality or artificial 
modification of shape. This was not the view of the palace 
eunuchs, however. They endeavoured to modify develop- 
ment of body in many ways. One method was to allow the 
dog to take little exercise from the third month to maturity, 
with the idea of lessening the appetite, and thus retarding 
growth. Some of them were accustomed, even in recent 
years, to hold the growing specimen in the hand for days at 
a time, inducing, by gentle pressure of the fingers, a slight 
exaggeration of width between the shoulders. Another 
artifice was the feeding of the puppy with sugar, but it is 
stated that this was found to induce thirst, with the result 
that there was a tendency for the nose to lengthen on account 
of over-drinking, especially during the third month. During 
this period nose-development is said to be greatest, while 
the development of the legs is believed to be most intense 
during the fourth month. Consequently, from weaning, 
about the fortieth day to the ninetieth, strong soup only 
and no water is given to the puppies. One method alleged 
to have been in use for arresting development was, as in the 

53 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

case of foot-binding, particularly cruel. It is said that the 
puppies, when small, were enveloped in wire cages closely 
fitting the body and not removed until maturity was reached. 

The methods of securing shortness of nose were more 
various than effective. They appear to have been in vogue 
only among the more ignorant breeders, and the better 
informed are persuaded that the only reliable means of 
securing good points is by careful selection in breeding, a 
matter which is becoming increasingly difficult in China 
through dearth of good specimens. 

It is a common practice to break the cartilage of the nose 
with the thumb-nail or a chopstick while the puppy is from 
three to seven days old, but this can be detected on account 
of the exaggerated snoring of the mutilated dog in after-life. 
Dr. J. E. Gray, in describing the skull of a Chinese " Pug- 
nosed Spaniel " in 1867, remarked, " The nose of the Chinese 
or Japanese Pug is said by some to be artificially produced 
by force suddenly or continuously applied, but this is cer- 
tainly not the case in the skull that is in the British Museum ; 
for the bones of the upper jaw and the nose are quite regular 
and similar on the two sides, showing no forced distortion of 
any kind, such as is to be observed in the skulls of some 
Bull-dogs." * 

Other breeders feed their puppies from a flat plate, or 
encourage them from the age of three months upwards to 
bite pigskin stretched on a board. Others will massage the 
nose daily, with the object of restraining growth of the 
obstinate organ, which, only too often in Peking, appears to 
be but little stunted by this persistent snubbing. 

Dogs are largely bred in Mongolia for their skins .f " There 

* " On the Skull of the Chinese Pug-nosed Spaniel or Lap-dog," by Dr. J. E. 
Gray, F.R.S., Proc. Zool. Soc, 1867, p. 40. 
t Alexander Hosie, " Manchuria," p. 205. 

54 



DOG-BREEDING 

are thousands of small dog-farms scattered over the northern 
districts of Manchuria and Mongolia, where from ten to 
hundreds of animals are reared yearly. When a girl is 
married she receives perhaps six dogs as her dowry, and it 
can easily be understood that this comparatively small be- 
ginning may be the foundation of a large fortune, seeing that 
reproduction of ten per annum would in a few years give an 
enormous total. A dog matures in from six to eight months, 
and the coat is at its best during the winter, so that the 
animal must be destroyed before the thaw sets in. It is 
doubtful whether the dogs' skins in any other part of the 
world are to be compared with those that come from Man- 
churia and Mongolia, either in size, length of hair, or 
quality." Sir Alexander Hosie remarks that the flesh of the 
dog is no doubt used for human food, and that its market 
value enters largely into the farm's profit and loss account. 

" The animals are killed, not with the knife, which might 
injure the fur, but by strangulation. The skins dried and 
frozen find a market in Mukden and other places, where they 
are cured before the thaw affects them, and made into mats 
and robes." 

Many of these skins are exceptionally large and fine, closely 
resembling those of the wolf and fox. Large numbers find 
their way to the European markets. 



55 



CHAPTER IV 
SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

THIS heading is intended to include all breeds which 
are not toy-dogs. No breed can be said to exist in 
the East, as in Europe, for the special use of the 
amateur sportsman. Game is captured for the sake of food, 
and the element of sport, though attractive to the Chinese 
and Japanese hunter, is a minor incentive. Consequently, 
the term " sporting " is here applied to all dogs used in the 
capture of game, and includes the chow, the greyhound, and 
the wolf-hound. It may be contended that this classification 
is no great improvement on that of the " Book of Rites." As a 
matter of fact, no such classification can be perfect, for 
dogs closely allied to the type which has become fixed in 
England under the name of " chow " are used in China for 
the hunting of deer, the shooting of pheasants, as guard dogs, 
for the production of furs, for edible purposes, and as sledge 
dogs. Numerically, this race is probably the most important 
in the world. Extreme poverty of the people, and increasing 
difficulty of maintenance, has weakened this most democratic 
of all dog races, and caused it to deteriorate, but throughout 
China there is a distinct resemblance to the chow in the 
miscellaneous unclassified local breeds. 

Laufer figures nine relief-bands on vases of the Han dynasty, 
connected with hunting scenes, the representation of which 
had become conventional at this period. The quarry is in 
several cases the wild boar, *' well characterized by its short, 
56 




To face p. 56 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

clumsy body, its long protruding snout, the shape of its head, 
and its short, erect tail." The dogs, galloping ventre a terre, 
are described by Laufer as greyhounds, but the tail of the 
conventional representation is thick, and the body too sturdy 
for such a breed, which, moreover, would be a type light 
for the hunting of game of such weight as the boar. Laufer 
suggests that the four scenes on the first * of these relief- 
bands illustrate consecutive stages of the same chase, thus 
describing the story of the same dog pursuing and finally 
reaching the same boar in four scenes, which thus become a 
" moving-picture." 

The second f Han relief-band illustrates tigers, with well- 
defined black stripes, in flying gallop and trotting. A rider 
on horseback, shooting with bow and arrow, a galloping hound 
in pursuit, and what may be a hare or a deer. Laufer describes 
this scene as a greyhound hunting a hare " characterized un- 
mistakably by his long, upright ears and short tail." The so- 
called greyhound, however, has a thick neck, sturdy body, and 
broad tail. 

A third relief-band X also represents a " galloping grey- 
hound." Another § of the same period includes three hounds 
" hunting stags, two of them unfortunately much effaced, 
but the other so happily drawn, with its long, pointed head, 
big breast, and thin loins, that it is unmistakable." 

A fifth band || includes tigers and what are apparently 
dogs having short, erect tails, short legs, and of build much 
more sturdy than those hitherto shown. 

Though it is not possible to define the exact points of these 
early varieties of the canine race these Han potteries, in 
addition to their vivid interest as artistic studies, certify to the 
fact that pursuit of the tiger, the wild-boar, the deer, and of 

* " Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty," Laufer, plate xlvi. 

t Ibid,, plate xlviii. J Ibid,, plate xlix § Ibid., plate 1. 11 Ibid., plate Hi. 

57 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

the hare with dogs was a pastime current among the ancient 
Chinese. The breeds in use were, no doubt, adapted to 
some extent to counter the ferocity, strength, speed, and 
elusive powers of each quarry respectively in a land which was 
gradually being denuded of forests and entering a state of 
close cultivation. 

The name of the chow breed of dog appears to have 
originated from " pidgin " English, which, now rapidly 
disappearing, was a trade language composed of a mixture 
of the most easily intelligible English and Chinese words 
used in early trade intercourse in South China. In this 
mixture there was originally a large element of Portuguese. 
Some suggest that the word originated as pidgin Portuguese, 
derived from " che," the Chinese for " to eat," used as the 
first word in the customary Chinese greeting, which means 
" Have you eaten rice ? " At one period the Chinese, whose 
trade in ginger, or " chow-chow," with Europeans was 
important, became known by the name of chow. It is, 
therefore, probable that the name chow, as applied to the 
dog commonly found in Canton, simply means a Chinese 
dog, and does not refer to its having been used for food. 

To the Western observer, the Chinese appear to have been 
far more successful in modifying the colour and form of 
canine breeds than in improving the powers of scent and 
sporting qualities of their dogs. This is no doubt largely 
due to the fact that for the last hundred years China has, 
from the point of view of sport, gone backwards. The 
Imperial hunts have been given up, preservation of the 
Imperial hunting-parks and game protection have ceased 
throughout China. The shot-gun, known to the Emperor 
Ch'ien Lung — to whom a specimen now to be seen in the 
National museum in Peking was sent by George HI of 
England — though made in China is used for commercial 

S8 







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Vti 



-set 



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Ml-'' 

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7'c /ace p, 58 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

rather than for sporting purposes. When shot with it the 
game is more often sitting than on the wing. Powder and 
shot are too expensive, and their supply to a mis-ruled people 
under a weak Government is not encouraged. Consequently, 
it is not surprising to find in China but little of that care 
and skill which are devoted to the training of sporting dogs in 
Europe. 

The existence of modern game laws is unknown through 
the greater part of China, and such as exist are not known ever 
to have been honoured in the observance. They were drafted 
by officials having no knowledge of natural history, and, 
partly, no doubt, on account of the vast area to be covered, 
where published, have never been taken seriously. 

Under the Chinese Emperors, preservation of game in the 
hunting-parks appears to have been very strict. Even in 
recent years poachers of Imperial deer were punished with 
death. Settlement on the Imperial preserves, which in the 
case of the Northern hunting-park comprised an area 
approximately equal to that of England, was strictly pro- 
hibited, and a large guard of soldiers was maintained to 
prevent encroachment. Marco Polo states : " For twenty 
days' journey round the spot nobody is allowed to keep hawks 
or hounds, though anywhere else whosoever list may keep 
them. And, furthermore, throughout all the Emperor's 
territory, nobody, however audacious, desires to hunt any 
of these four animals, to wit, the hare, stag, buck, and roe, from 
the month of March to the month of October. Anybody who 
should do so would rue it bitterly. But those people are so 
obedient to their lord's command that even if a man were to 
find one of those animals asleep by the roadside he would not 
touch it for the world ! And thus the game multiplies at 
such a rate that the whole country swarms with it, and the 
Emperor gets as much as he could desire. Beyond the term 

59 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

I have mentioned, however, to wit that from March to 
October, everybody may take these animals as he list." 

Many writers have suggested, basing their opinions upon 
translations from Polo's work, that the dogs employed in these 
Imperial hunts were of mastiff breed. Some have gone so 
far as to suggest that, in consequence, they must have come 
from Tibet. It appears likely that the word used by Polo 
represented merely dogs having considerable size, strength, 
and hunting instinct such as were found in Europe and were 
used for hunting heavy game. 

The French word from which " mastiff " is derived indi- 
cates a mixture in the dog's race. Its earliest types were found 
both in Gauland Britain. This race helped no doubt to produce 
the hunting dogs for which Britain was justly famous in mediaeval 
times. In 1540 Henry VIII's envoy to the King of France 
wrote : " The Constable took me to the King's dinner, whome 
we found speaking of certain ' masties ' you gave him at Calais, 
and how long it took to train them ; for when he first let slip 
one at a wild-boar, he spied a white horse with a page upon 
him, and he took the horse by the throat and they could not 
pluck him off until he had strangled it. He laughed very 
heartily at telling this, and he spoke of the pleasure he now 
takes in shooting with a cross-bow, desiring to have a hound 
that would draw well to a hurt deer. Your Majesty's father 
sent to King Lewis a very good one of a mean sort. I hear 
you could not do him a greater pleasure than send him such 
a hound." * 

This dog, however, has changed in modern times. " The 
mastiff of Tibet was larger than the old English (whose ears 
were formerly often semi-erect), but is smaller than the 
modern English mastiff, averaging 27-30 inches at the 
shoulder." This evolution modifying the dog's form to 

* " Calendar of State Papers. Henry VIII." 
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SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

the purpose for which it has been from time to time most 
useful has ended in the race becoming fixed by the modern 
show-system as a guard-dog. " The modern mastiff has an 
excellent nose but is of little or no use for sporting purposes." * 
This type of dog cannot be the same as that which existed in 
the sixteenth century. 

The Chinese Imperial hunts have been given up for a 
century and upkeep of the dogs has long since ceased. It 




HOUND REPRESENTED ON HAN BAS-RELIEF OF THE HSIAO T'ANG SHAN 

(from a rubbing) 

may be that specimens may be found with the chiefs of some 
of the Mongol tribes but with the gradual extinction of the 
big game of China it is unlikely that many of the hounds exist. 

Representations of these hounds are found in certain 
pictures of the K'ang Hsi and Ch'ien Lung period from 
Jehol. 

Laufer figures hunting-dogs of the Han period from 
rubbings taken from bas-reliefs at Hsiao T'ang Shan. These 
may be roughly dated 150 B.C. One of these bas-reliefs, of 
colossal size, shows eight hunters afoot, carr5dng nets over their 
shoulders and eight dogs preceding them. 

" All the aforementioned greyhounds and hunting-dogs 

* " Chambers' Encyclopsedia." See Rev. M. B. Wynn's " History of the Mastiff," 
i886. 

61 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

have smooth-haired tails ; only two (on the bas-reliefs of the 
Hsiao T'ang Shan) are represented with bushy tails, the hair 
being drawn in an ornamental and much exaggerated manner 
on the lower side of them." * 

Turning now to fowling, Laufer is of opinion that Chinese 
culture in hawking has been derived from Turkish tribes. 
He states that Schrader,f from a study of the history of 
falconry in ancient Europe, has demonstrated that Turkistan 
must be considered to be the mother-country of falconry, 
whence it was carried to the Occident during the first invasions 
in the Migration of Peoples. " The whole method of hawk- 
training, as laid down in detail in the Chinese and Japanese 
falconers' books, coincides in such a striking manner with the 
same practice followed in Europe, and also by the Persians and 
Arabs, that it must needs be attributed to a common source of 
origin. J To mention only one of many instances : the hood, 
a leather cap for blindfolding hawks in order to tame them, 
was unknown to European falconers before the Crusades. 
It was introduced by the German Emperor Frederick II, 
who adopted it from the Syrian Arabs. § The use of the 
hood has been well known to Chinese falconers since times of 
old, and is still prevalent in China. The origin (of falconry) 
can be sought only in the vast steppes of Central Asia and in 
the culture of the ancient Turks." |1 

This statement is based upon discoveries of silver objects 
in Siberia, upon which falconry and the use of hunting- 
birds are represented, believed to date from as early as the 
later iron period. Klementz made a find of a wall-painting 

* " Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty," Laufer, p. 272. 

f Schrader, " Reallexicon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde " (Strassburg, 

I901), p. 211. 

X For an account of the modern use of hawks in Japan see " Japan Day by Day," 
by Ed. S. Morse, vol. ii, p. 381 et seq. 
§ " De Arte Venandi cum Avibus," 1245. 
II Laufer, " Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty," p. 231. 

62 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

representing two figures of men, one of whom seems to be 
carrying a falcon, in a cave near Turfan in Turkistan * 

" In China, hawks, eagles, and other large birds of prey, are 
early mentioned in the ' Shih king ' and in the 'Li ki,' 
particularly in poetical comparisons ; but in classical litera- 
ture no mention is made of falconry or of the training of birds 
for the chase, which seems to have come up not earlier than 




FIGURE OF DOG ON HAN BAS-HELIEF OF HSIAO T'ANG SHAN 

the Han dynasty, and soon developed into the favourite sport 
and pastime of emperors and noblemen." f 

Marco Polo describes the Emperor's method of fowling 
with falcons and other hawks : " And let me tell you, when 
he goes a-fowling with his Ger falcons and other hawks he 
is attended by full 10,000 men who are disposed in couples. 
Every man of them is provided with a whistle and hood, so as 
to be able to call in a hawk and hold it in hand. And when the 
Emperor makes a cast there is no need that he follow it up, 
because these men I speak of keep so good a look-out that they 
never lose sight of the bird, and if these have need of help 
they are ready to render it." J 

* " Expedition nach Turfan," St. Petersburg, 1899. 

t " Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty," Laufer, p. 232. 

t " Marco Polo's Travels," Yule. 

63 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

Laufer states further : " The oldest representation of 
falconry in China is found on one of the Han bas-reliefs 
of the Hsiao t'ang shan,* A man on foot holds a falcon on 
his right fist ; and a greyhound is hunting a stag in front of 
him. The next in point of time are two wood engravings in 
the dictionary * Erh-ya,' f which may be stated to present a 
rather faithful copy of the illustrations to this work extant in 
the fourth or sixth centuries. At all events, it may lay just 
claim to the honour of being the oldest graphic book-illustra- 
tion of falconry in the world ; the oldest English (and alto- 
gether European) representation! being from an Anglo- 
Saxon manuscript of the end of the ninth century or beginning 
of the tenth, preserved in the British Museum. While the 
oldest Chinese book on falconry seems to come down from 
the Sui dynasty (a.d. 518-617), the first European print on 
the subject is the German book of Anon, printed in Augsburg 
in 1472." 

Though Kaempfer remarks of the Japanese : " They hunt 
but little and only with common dogs, this kind of diversion 
being not very proper for so populous a Country, and where 
there is so little game," Capt. John Saris wrote about eighty 
years earlier of the " Captain Generall " of the garrison of 
Fushimi : " Hee marched in very great state, beyond that the 
others did. He hunted and hawked all the way, having his 
owne Hounds and Hawkes along with him, the Hawkes being 
hooded and lured as ours are. Their horses are not tall but 
of the size of our midling nags, short and well trust (trussed), 
small headed and very full of mettle, in my opinion far ex- 
celling the Spanish lennet in pride and stomacke." § 

* Chavannes, " La sculpture sur pierre en Chine," p. 77, and plate xxxviii. 
f Book II, p. 236. 

X Joseph Strutt, " The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England," new 
edition, London, 1898, p. 88, Fig. 3. 
§ " Voyage of John Saris," Hakluyt Society, 1612-1613. 

64 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

Arkwright * remarks that the first European reference to 
dogs " which know of beasts and birds by the scent," dates 
from about a.d, 1260, and opinion appears fairly unanimous 
that they came from Spain ; " as one talks of a greyhound of 
Britain, the boarhounds and bird-dogs come from Spain," 
remarks an early writer quoted by the same authority. 
Another writer remarks that Robert Dudley, Duke of North- 
umberland, born in 1504, who " was a compleat Gent, in all 
suitable employments," was " the first of all that taught a dog 
to sit in order to catch partridges." * This, no doubt, was 
the method practised with the spaniels f mentioned fairly 
frequently in English records of the time of Henry VIII. 
The sporting spaniels were originally large dogs and became 
modified to pointers by selection and cross-breeding. " No 
hound or greyhound, spaniel or other kind of dog to go in the 
streets by day unless ' hardeled or ledde in leses or lyams or 
otherwise, so it be no " noyance " under pain of forfeiture 
to the taker and a fine of 4d. to the owner.' " And again, 
Robin the King's Majesty's spaniel keeper, was paid 56s. gd. 
" for hair cloth to rub the spaniels with and for meat and 
lodging at Maidenhead and Windsor and at Putney, when 
the King dined at my lord of Hartfordes." J 

The figure from Laufer's " Chinese Pottery of the Han 
Dynasty," which is a composition from rubbings from a bas- 
relief of the Han period, represents a form of sport practised 
in China to this day. Whether or not the possession of 

* " The Pointer," W. Arkwright, pp. 6 and lo. 

t Spaniel. Murray gives the forms spaynel, spanyel, spayngyel (old French 
ejpaignol, espaigneul, " Spanish dog "), spaignol. First mentioned 1388. Chaucer 

W ife s Prologue," p. 267 : " For as a spaynel she wol on hym lepe," 1410. " Master 
of Game " (M. S. Digby, p. 182) : " A goode spaynel shulde not be to rough, but 
his tail shulde be rough." 1621. Burton, " Anat. Mel." : " Like a ranging Spaniel 
that barkes at every bird he sees." Spaynel and spanyell were also used in the 
fourteenth century = a Spaniard. 

X " Letters and Papers," 1542 and 1546. 

E 65 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

powers of scent for birds is indicated must remain a matter 
for conjecture, and the dogs are somewhat roughly drawn. 

On the right are two pedestrians carrying bird-nets of the 
size now used in taking quail in China. Before them are two 
hounds having rather bushy tails, erect ears, and long muzzles, 
galloping in pursuit of two hares, identified by their short 
tails and long ears. On the left another hunter holds a grey- 
hound in leash. Above the hares is depicted a dog, appar- 
ently in quest, but conceivably at point. Above the grey- 
hound is a bird, probably a hawk, hovering. 

The taking of quail with nets of exactly the shape repre- 
sented, and with dogs of " chow " type, having rudimentary 
scent and point, may be seen in use by native hunters in many 
parts of China to-day. Pheasants also are captured in the 
same way, a hawk being sometimes used to prevent the quarry 
from rising or running. Hares are captured in similar fashion. 

The following is the Chinese description of a hawking- 
party carried out by one of the Manchu nobles in recent 
times. Such parties were common in the district to the 
north-west of Tientsin about 1895 : 

The assistants were eight in number. Two rangers led 
the party from a distance. Their special function was 
discovery of the " form " of the hare. Six men in charge 
of hawks and dogs were spread out fan- wise behind, their 
masters following the party on horseback or on foot, carry- 
ing their long-barrelled guns. Of the six men in charge of 
the dogs and hawks two held the hounds, rather thicker- 
built than the foreign greyhound, in leash. Two, one on 
either side, carried large hawks (t'u hu-lit. " hare falcon " ; 
the name is sometimes applied to the goshawk) at their 
wrists, and two at either extremity of the line carried sparrow- 
hawks (yao, female of accipiter nisus ; the name is also 
applied to accipiter gularis). On discovering a hare the 
66 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

ranger blew a sharp blast upon his whistle. The visor of 
the hood of each of the large hawks was then lifted, but 
the hood, bearing a red tassel at its tip, was left in place. 
The sparrow-hawks were then released. Each of these, 
taking the red tassel of the nearer hawk's hood in its beak, 
tore off the hood. The large hawks were then released, 
and the hare being started, followed it, one on either side, 



J ill II Mui 




FIGURES OF HUNTING-DOGS ON HAN BAS-RELIEF (FROM KIN SHIH SO) 

stooping alternately, each hawk beating it with the (tai) 
ball of its talon so loudly as to be heard at one or two hun- 
dred yards' distance. After a certain amount of this treat- 
ment the hare lay down exhausted. The hawks then 
hovered, one on either side. The dogs meanwhile had 
been released. On reaching the hare they lay down, one 
on either side of the hare. The hawks alighted on their 
backs, waiting for the huntsmen. On their arrival the 
hind-legs of the hare were drawn back with a crook and 
broken by a sharp blow with a narrow rod. The hare 
was then killed and a little of the flesh given to each of the 
hawks. 

Should the hare have broken for cover when put up it 
would have been coursed with the dogs, the hawks being 
held back for fear of injury in thorny bushes. If released 
they would have perched near the wood on guard. In taking 

67 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

the hare in such difficult ground the gun would be used. 
In open country use of the gun is unnecessary. The gun 
being a match or flint-lock it was almost impossible to shoot 
birds on the wing. A hawk commonly used in the catching 
of hares in China is the huang ying (lit. yellow eagle — Astur 
palumbarius, the goshawk), which fixes its talons in the 
sides of the hare and is dragged with spread wings until 
the quarry is exhausted. The chi-ying (lit. bird-eagle) is 
the male of the huang-ying and weighs about 2| lbs. Being 
small of body it is suited only to the catching of pheasants. 

The Han bas-relief mentioned above was found in the 
village of Chiao Ch'eng Chi, west of Chia Hsiang in Western 
Shantung, The explanation of the scene depicted, made by 
the editors of the " Kin Shih So," the Chinese work,* from 
which the illustration is derived, reads : " On the lower panel 
one man leads a dog, two men carry nets for the quail. A 
pheasant and a hare are running at full speed, for it repre- 
sents a hunt." This, however, must not be taken more 
seriously than the remarks of other Chinese literary commen- 
tators written at late periods with a view to elucidation of 
technical subjects of which they had no special knowledge. 

Use of the fowling-piece and the art of shooting flying only 
came into being in England about the year 1725. f In Europe 
hawking had been superseded by the netting of partridges 
with the spaniel trained to set at the birds and to cause them 
to allow the net to be drawn up to and over them. Hawking, 
the netting of quails, francolins, or partridges, and pheasants, 
as well as the use of the muzzle-loader and breech-loader 
sporting-guns are all practised side by side in China by the 
natives to-day. In South China the capture of birds is less 

* Vol. iv., section " Shih So." 

f Notes and Queries, 2nd series, v, p. 306; and Edinburgh Review, August i82Sj 
vol. xliii, p. 457. 

68 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

practised than in the North, on account of the idea that birds 
exercise good geomantic influence over the country. Notices 
are often posted in Southern villages to the effect that neither 
birds nor the trees on which they roost are to be destroyed. 

In Chinese fowling the faithful chow, or a close relation, 
ranks a good second to his master in the operation of capture. 
Ever distrustful of strangers, he is the faithful guardian of 
his village, wakeful and noisy at night, sleepy and persecuted 
during the day. Some claim for him on occasion the qualities 
of that deadly class of dogs " which bite bitterly before they 
barcke, for they flye upon a man, without utterance of voyce, 
snatch at him, and catch him by the throate, and most cruelly 
byte out collopes of fleasche." * He is brave in the defence of 
his home, keen of nose, and untiring in the chase, though 
sorely oppressed by the warmness of his heavy coat, necessary 
as a protection against the thorns and prickly creepers which 
tangle his native thickets. His powers of scent are used to-day 
in the capture of birds for the table, just as, in all probability, 
before the European bird-dog was invented, they availed the 
oriental hunter in the capture of antagonists in the favourite 
Chinese sport of quail-fighting. His staunchness at " point " 
may be but slight. Sportsmen, however, who know him will 
agree that the chow or the pointer-cross is best fitted to stand 
the rigours of the China climate, and that in his native thickets 
and tangled clearings he will, by his forceful tactics, behind 
such inveterate runners as the strong-sinewed Mongolian 
pheasant or the swift-legged francolin of Yunnan, bring birds 
to the gun, while the staunchness of the foreign pointer dis- 
tinguished in field-trials, brings seeming mockery from the 
pursued, and is to the fowler little less than a delusion. 

White, in 1802, writes of the importation of a pair of dogs, 

* Dr. Caius, Abraham Fleming's translation quoted in " Praise of the Dog," Ethel 
E. Bicknell. 

69 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

evidently chows, from Canton. He says they were " such as 
are fattened in that country for the purpose of being eaten ; 
they are about the size of a moderate spaniel ; of a pale yellow 
colour, with coarse bristling hairs on their backs ; sharp 
upright ears and peaked heads, which give them a very fox- 
like appearance. Their hind-legs are unusually straight, 
without any bend at the hock or ham, to such a degree as to 
give them an awkward gait when they trot. When they are 
in motion their tails are curved high over their backs like 
those of some hounds, and have a bare place on the outside 
from the tip midway, that does not seem to be matter of acci- 
dent but somewhat singular. Their eyes are jet-black, small 
and piercing ; the insides of their lips and mouths of the same 
colour, and their tongue blue. When taken out into a field 
the bitch showed some disposition for hunting, and dwelt 
on the scent of a covey of partridges till she sprung them, 
giving her tongue all the time. These dogs bark much, in 
a short, thick manner, like foxes, and have a surly, savage 
demeanour, like their ancestors, which are not domesticated 
but tied up in sties, where they are fed for the table with 
rice-meal and other farinaceous food. These dogs did not 
relish flesh when they came to England." * 

This is a good description, except for colour, which varies 
almost infinitely between jet-black and snowy white, for the 
breed as it exists in China to-day. Native himters insist 
that his tongue shall be black. 

Similar dogs are used for drawing sledges in Mongolia 
and the Ninguta and Sanhsing districts of Northern Man- 
churia. " The Tartar dogs are much valued, and deservedly ; 
they harness them to sledges which they draw over the snow 
and frozen rivers. ' We met,' says one of the missionaries, 
to whom we owe the map of Tartary, ' a lady of Ussuri who 

* White's " Natural History of Selborne," vol. ii, p. 77, 1802. 
70 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

was returning from Peking. She informed us that she had a 
hundred dogs for her sleigh. One goes in front as guide, 
those in harness follow it without turning aside, halting only 
at certain points, where they are exchanged for others taken 
from those held in leash. She maintained that she had often 
made a continuous journey of lOO li (30 miles).' " * 

Similar, no doubt, is the race of dogs said by Griffis f to 
be the only animal domesticated by the Ainu of Japan. He 
says they are taught to hunt bear and deer, to watch on the 
shore for the incoming salmon, to rush into the water, drive 
the fish, bite off the salmon's head, and to leave its body at his 
master's feet. 

The breed appears to extend North into Tibet, for 
Percival Landon describes the dogs which swarm over that 
country and form one of its principal features as being of a 
type " rather that of the Esquimaux sledge-dog." J 

Dr. Wells Williams states that " In Anhui a peculiar 
variety (of dog) has pendent ears of great length and thin 
wirey tails." § 

Some writers mention Chinese crested dogs and a hairless 
dog. The hairless type appears to be as elusive as the 
" Raccoon dogs of China and Japan," f| and the naked dogs of 
Turkey and Egypt. The Zoological Society records that a 
hairless Egyptian variety of the familiar dog died in its garden 
in 1833. Buffon described a dog naturally destitute of hair 
under the name " Le Chien Turc," Later writers state that 
the race is unknown in Turkey. Others deny that a hairless 
Egyptian race has any existence. 

* Grosier, " De la Chine," vol. iv, p. 244. 

•j- W. E. Griffis, " The Japanese Nation in Evolution," p. 9. For a similar use of 
the dog in salmon-fishing in Britain, see Pinkerton's " Voyages," vol. ii. 
% " Lhasa," Percival Landon, p. 387. 
§ " Middle Kingdom," vol. i, p. 319. 
II Proc. Zool. Soc, 1868, p. 492. 

71 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

The Greyhound, Wolf-hound, and Kansu Greyhound 

Existence of the greyhound at an early period in Shantung 
Province is proved by a rubbing * from a bas-relief of the Han 
period at Wu Liang in Shantung Province. The greyhound, 
v^rhich is altogether unmistakable, is described by Laufer as 
sitting on the ground in front of a carthorse, a man standing on 
its left, and as seeming to belong to the people driving in 
the cart. The same figure of a greyhound, in exactly the 
same posture, is delineated on another bas-relief, also here 
squatting in front of a cart whose horse has been unharnessed 
and is standing to one side under a tree, while a man, probably 
the teamster, is to the left in front of the dog. 

In North China the " long-dog " is known as the hsi-kou 
or thin-dog, often qualified by the name Min-tzu, a prefecture 
in Shantung said to have been famous at one period for the 
breed. The legendary Heavenly Dog is represented as being 
of this breed. The term is probably the antithesis to that of 
the " short-dog," introduced from the Southern Shansi 
States about looo B.c.f 

Both rough and smooth-coated varieties of the dog exist, 
and they closely resemble the British race. The known fre- 
quency of intercourse between Eastern monarchs renders it 
probable that this dog is akin to the Persian greyhound, of 
which race a specimen reached England before 1858. It was 
used in hunting the wild-ass and antelopes as well as the cours- 
ing of hares. On the cutting of the crops of maize, millet, and 
wheat in the vast plains north of the Yang-tse, numbers of 
hares are left without cover. The villagers spend their spare 
time coursing them with these dogs. The European dog is 
acknowledged to be superior to the Chinese, and is said to 



* Chavannes, " La Sculpture en Pierre en Chine," plate xxv. 
f Chap, i, p. 16. 



72 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 



have been crossed with it to improve the breed. English 
greyhounds were famous in Europe, and an article of export 
in the fifteenth century. In 1471 the following " instruc- 
tions and orders " were given to Francisco Salvatico, 
Councillor of the Duke of Milan, about to go to England : 

" We desire you to obtain some fine English hackneys 
of those called ' hobby ' for the use of ourself and the 
duchess our consort, as well as 
some greyhounds for our hunting, 
a laudable exercise in which we 
take great delight, and so we have 
decided to send you to England 
where we understand that each of 
these things is very plentiful and of 
rare excellence. We are giving you 
a thousand gold ducats for the 
purpose to buy the best and finest 
horses you can find and dogs also. 
In order that you may find and 
buy them more easily we are 
sending with you el Rossetto, our 
master of horse, and two of our 
dog-keepers, who know our tastes and the quality of horses 
and dogs that we require." 

Salvatico was unfortunate enough to fall into the hands of 
the Duke of Burgundy at Sluys, where he was consigned to the 
castle and " stripped of all his letters and things," but after 
diplomatic representations was released. Two months later 
he wrote from France that he was " much perplexed as to 
what to do, with English affairs in their existing state," and 
that he was " all ready to go and also to proceed to Ireland, 
whence all the hackney iphico) horses come." 

Five years later there was transmitted to King Edward a 

73 




GREYHOUND REPRESENTED ON HAN BAS- 
RELIEF OF WU LIANG IN SHANTUNG 

Chavaniies: La Sculpture en Pierre en Chine. 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

letter from the Duke of Milan to his Ambassador : " We 
were especially fond of Brebur, whom the King sent, but 
whether from change of air or some other accident he fell 
sick, and though we gave him every care he died. This has 
caused us much grief. We beg His Majesty to send another 
dog of the same race, as nothing would give us greater pleasure. 
We send the present bearer for no other reason." Sforza, 
the Duke of Milan, wrote to King Henry in 1487 : " The 
two noble dogs which we desired from your island have 
arrived safely, and nothing could please us better." * In 
1584 Stafford wrote to Walsingham to " entreat you for some 
greyhounds, especially Irish, or the largest sort of English 
ones ... for the Cardinal de Medicis." f 

A little later the East India Company began to take energetic 
steps for the opening up of trade with Japan and China. 
In doing so it made use of the high reputation of the then 
existing British breeds of dogs, and they became a common 
article of export on the British ships. There can be little 
doubt that greyhounds from England reached China at this 
period. 

In 1614 Captain Saris recommended the sending of a 
" fine greyhound " to the son of the Daimio of Hirado. In 
the same year the Governor of Surat requested the East 
India Company to send as presents for the Great Mogul 
" looking-glasses, figures of beasts or birds made of glass, 
mastiffs, greyhounds, spaniels, and little dogs." 

In 161 5 the Company's factor wrote that King James's 
letters had been delivered to the King of Acheen and other 
parts of Sumatra, and suggested " a corslet and helmet will be 
well accepted by him ; he takes great delight in dogs, and also 
in drinking and making men drunk." The King of Acheen 
replied to King James begging him " to send him ten mastiff 

* " Calendar of State Papers," Milan, 1471. f Ibid., 1583-4. 

74 




KANSU GREYHOUNDS 




u.^.. 



MASTIFF TOMB-DOG, IN TERRA-COTTA. 
TANG PERIOD. (AUTHOR'S COLLECTION) 
PRESENTED BY KUNGPAH, T. KING, ESQ. 




KANSU GREYHOUND 




CHINESE ROYAL-COATED GREYHOUND 
PEKING 



To face p. 74 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 



dogs and bitches, with a great gun, wherein a man may sit 
upright." * 

A separate Chinese variety is known as the Hsi Yang Min- 
tzu, and comes from the Mahommedan districts of Kansu and 
Shensi, where it is used for hunting hares and foxes. It is a 
diminutive greyhound, short-coated, beautifully proportioned, 
of distinctive type and breed. A large variety is said to exist. 
Three specimens were brought to Peking in 1914. Measure- 
ments of two of these are appended. 



Nose to joining on of neck 

Girth of skull . 

Girth of muzzle 

Length of neck-joint to shoulders 

Girth round neck 

Girth of foreleg 

Girth of thigh 

Girth of chest . 

Girth of loins . 

Neck to tail . 

Length of tail . 

Length of ear . 

Age 

Colour . 

Coat 
Sex 



A kindred breed of coursing dog is the Chinese wolf-hound, 
which is found in the encampments of the Mongolian princes, 
and is used for hunting wolves and foxes. Many of the chiefs 
have from 40 to 50 couple of these hounds. Few have been 
seen by Europeans. They are said to be similar to the Borzoi. 
Two of them were brought to Tientsin some years ago and are 
remembered, when escaped from their keepers, as having 
captured a Pekingese dog which was unfortunate enough to 



Smaller 


Larger 


inches 


inches 


9 


10 


13 


14 


6 


e\ 


6 


6J 


II 


. 12J 


4 


• 4i 


14 


• is4 


25 


34 


17 


20 


20 


22 


15 


13 


3h ■ 


4 


8 months 


Fully grown 




1-2 years 


Liver 


Very light 




yellow 


Short . 


Short 


Male . 


. Male 



" Calendar of the State," East Indies, 1513-1625. 



75 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

cross their path, tearing it to pieces and devouring it on the 
spot. 

" The hunting-dogs are clever in seizing wild animals, 
and are kept in great numbers in Mongolia. These are the 
' hunting-dogs higher than stags ' that Chou Po-ch'i of the 
Yuan dynasty mentions in a poem in his ' Diary of a Journey 
to the Capital.' " * 

Nothing is known of the origin of the Tibetan mastiff. 
German writers have assumed that the " ao " dog of the tribes 
of Leu was of this breed without, as has been remarked already, 
sufficient historical basis. The Tibetan mastiff certainly is 
a large dog and the " Erh Ya," a Chinese dictionary written 
many centuries after the importation of the dogs of Leu, 
describes the character *' ao " as referring to dogs four 
(ancient) Chinese feet high. Laufer remarks that the word 
" ao " was probably never a current term for any species of 
dog but, seeing that a similarly formed character with the same 
sound represented " a huge sea-fish," " a huge turtle," " a 
bird of ill-omen," " a worthless fellow," originally implied the 
notion of something huge, weird, and extraordinary .f 

There is no Chinese evidence suggesting that a race of 
mastiffs existed in Tibet in prehistoric times. Export of 
mastiffs from Tibet into China has never been recorded by 
the Chinese nor have they mentioned the existence of a large 
race of dogs in that country which, originally the home of 
semi-nomad tribes, became consolidated under one ruler and 
known to histor}^ only in the seventh century a.d. That 
fierce dogs of large size existed in China in early times is 
proved by the discoveries of pottery figures of guard dogs in 
graves of the Han period. Laufer J illustrates " the full 
figure of a dog of Han pottery, with green glaze which, for 

* " Annals of Ch'eng te fu," Jehol, Book 29, p. 25a. 

t " Pottery of the Han Dynasty," p. 255. J Ibid., Laufer, plate bdv. 

76 





IZ 
O 

« 

Q 
< 



To face p. 75 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

the most part, has dissolved into a silver iridescence." This 
dog is clearly a sturdy chov^ of a type commonly found in 
Yunnan Province. It has prick ears, bushy and well-curled 
erect tail, straight hind legs and non-pendulous lips, but large 
eyes and broad head. These tomb-dog figures have evidently 
been made in large numbers, usually on the cheap scale 
current in modern Chinese funeral offerings and grave fur- 
nishings. Strongly characteristic of these Han guardian- 
dogs are the massive collar and body-straps v^hich, by their 
stoutness, indicate that the guard-dog of the period was 
extremely powerful. In their form, neck and chest-band 
connected by a strap in front and bound into an iron ring 
over the back, they clearly originate the efficient harness with 
which the Chinese have been accustomed to hold their more 
powjerful dogs in /leash through historical times. The iron 
buckles at the side of the harness are strongly made and very 
characteristic. The tail in some of the clay specimens is 
bushy and well curled over the back.* In others, however, 
though curled, it is short and with no brush. Stiff^ness of the 
hind legs so characteristic of the chow breed is clearly shown 
in these models .f 

It may be that these pottery tomb-dogs are the repre- 
sentatives of dogs which were in the possession of the deceased, 
and that at an earlier period the dogs themselves were 

* The Assyrian dogs of Asshur-bani-pal wore plaited neck-collars. Judging from 
the reliefs and clay figures reproduced in Handcock's work, the curl of the tail of 
these dogs is open, and does not closely resemble that of the Tibetan mastiff breed. 
The ears are not pricked, but rather pendulous. The hind legs are not straight, and 
are bent in running. The suggestion by Layard that the Assyrian breed is still 
extant in Tibet (though not in Mesopotamia) does not seem justified. 

f " The only peculiarity that I have noticed about them (the Tibetan mastiffs) 
is that the tail is nearly always curled upward on the back, where the hair is displaced 
by the constant rubbing of the tail." A. Cunningham, " Ladak, Physical, Statistical, 
and Historical," London, 1854, p. 218. Cf. White on the chow dog : " When they 
are in motion their tails are curved high over their backs Uke those of some hounds, 
and have a bare place on the outside from the tip midway, that does not seem like a 
matter of accident, but somewhat singular." 

77 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

slaughtered that they might accompany their master's spirit 
in its journey. " All Americans believe in the soul's journey 
to another world and some speak of the bridge leading to 
heaven, and others of the Milky Way as the path of souls. 
The custom of removing the corpse by a special door, found 
among the Algonquins, is ancient in China and Thibet, and 
was once well known in Europe also. The dog slain at the 
tomb becomes the guide of the soul, as in Persia." * 

The inclusion of dogs in burial ceremony can be traced 
back to the Copper period, when man was still using stone 
implements and had in Europe only two kinds of domestic 
dog (C. palustris and C inter medius). A young girl of the 
period has been found to be protected by four dogs' heads 
placed symmetrically with the fangs outwards and at the 
corners, below a circle of stones with animal bones. The soil 
was covered with a heap of small stones nearly six feet deep. 
Elliott remarks that this, no doubt, superstitious ceremony may 
have had something to do with the ever-present danger of 
wolves. The people who lived in this village belonged to 
the Cromagnon and Furfooz types .f 

A similar custom exists among certain African tribes at the 
present time, a dog being slaughtered at the burial of a 
chief.| It is believed that in Africa this dog-sacrifice has 
taken the place of the sacrifice of slaves or of enemies captured 
in war. The well-defined leading-harness appears to indicate 
that in China the idea was rather to provide a guide for the 
spirit through the darkness of the future existence. Similar 
harness may be seen on dogs leading the blind in China at 
the present day. 

Clay figures of the human servitors of the deceased are 

* " The Rise of Man," by C. R. Conder, 1908. 

t " Prehistoric Man and his Story," by G. F. Scott Elliott, 1915. 

X " Ban of the Bori," by Tremayne. 

78 






13 

■'3 





tao 









P 




1-1 




a 




_QJ 


w 


}:^ 


2^ 


O 


W 




o 




to 


R 




o 


O 


V 


'z, 








H 


o 


2; 


O 


p 


■q 


M 


J3 
(11 



ft 
B 



Id 
■a 



« 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

found in Japanese tombs. The Nihongi gives details of these 
burial customs : " The brother of the Emperor Suinin 
(29 B.C. to A.D. 70) died and was buried at Musa. All those 
who had been in his personal service were gathered together 
and were buried alive in an upright position around his barrow. 
They did not die for many days, but wept and bewailed 
day and night. At length they died and became putrid. 
Dogs and crows came together and ate them up." The Em- 
peror, who had listened to the lamentations, ordered the 
abolition of this custom, and it is said that from the year 
A.D. 3 clay figures instead of human beings were buried in or 
about the barrows.* 

" A large breed of dogs, so fierce and bold that two of them 
together will attack a lion (tiger) " is mentioned by Marco 
Polo in connexion with the Province of Kueichow.f Laufer 
suggests that these are identical with the Yii lin dogs men- 
tioned by the Chinese as being produced in Yii lin chou of 
Kuanghsi Province, extremely high and large, with drooping 
ears, and tail different from that of the common dog.| There 
does not, however, appear to be any good ground for this 
suggestion. 

Marco Polo refers to several kinds of dogs in Tibet. 
He speaks of the large and fine dogs, which are of great 
service in catching the musk-beasts (Book II, Chap. 45). 
In Chap. 46 he says : " These people of Tebet are an ill- 
conditioned race. They have mastiff dogs as big as donkeys, 
which are capital at seizing wild beasts (and in particular the 
wild oxen which are called Beyamini, very large and fierce 
animals). They have also sundry other kinds of sporting 
dogs and excellent lanner falcons (and sakers) swift in flight, 

* " The World's History," vol. ii, p. 3. 

t " T'u shu chi ch'eng," vol. dxciii, p. 5. 

X " Pottery of the Han Dynasty," Laufer, p. 265. 

79 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

and well trained, which are got in the mountains of the 
country." * 

In the Province of Yunnan the musk and barking-deer, 
which are small beasts of 40-50 lbs. in maximum weight, 
are hunted with chow dogs of somewhat larger size and 
weight. Both deer inhabit mountain forests where thin 
undergrowth and plenty of rocks obtain. They feed upon 
grass, and in the case of the musk-deer upon moss and lichen. 
They are very active and sure-footed, traversing rocks and 
precipitous ground with great agility. It is unlikely that the 
Tibetans have ever used dogs of mastiff size for hunting 
these deer. The wild yak, on the other hand, is known 
to inhabit the open slopes of Tibet, and the use of a large 
heavy dog in its capture is natural. f Yule notes, " Mr. 
Cooper at Ta-ts'ien lu, mentions a pack of dogs of another 
breed (than the large Tibetan dog), tan and black, ' fine 
animals of the size of setters.' " 

The German suggestion, based on Marco Polo's account, 
that in his time mastiffs were exported in great numbers 
from Tibet to China, cannot be correct. He certainly 
does mention that there were vast numbers of " mastiffs " J 
at the court of the Great Khan, but the word mastiff or masty 
was one having a broader signification in those days than 
in these of shows and careful definition of points. The 

* W. Yule, " The Book of Ser Marco Polo," third edition by H. Cordier, London, 
1903, vol. ii, p. 52. 

■f In the Mongol text of the " Yuan ch'ao pi shi " {Pallad. Trans. 148) in one case, 
the valour and fierceness of the Mongols are compared with those qualities in the 
dogs of Tubot. The Chinese translator (fourteenth century) renders " dogs of 
Tubot " by dogs of " Si fan." Bretschneider, " Mediaeval Researches from E. 
Asiatic Sources," p. 23, vol. ii. 

X Mastiff. " Murray's Dictionary," vol. vi, p. 220, states that the word is more 
or less confused with old French mestif, mongrel. The form mastin occurs only in 
Caxton's translations from French : cf. Mdtin. The word occurs first in 1330 as 
mastif. 1601. Holland, "Pliny," i, 218 : "The Colophonians and Castabaleans 
maintained certain squadrons of mastiue dogs for their war service." The forms 
masty, mastie also occur. 

80 



FROM A SCROLL OF A HUNDRED PEKINGESE DOGS. 
Tao Kuang period, after Tsou Yi-Kwei, K'ang Hsi period. 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

Tibetan mastiff, too, has proved itself difficult to acclimatize 
in certain foreign countries, and is unable to bear the heat of 
summer in North China. It appears likely that a foreign 
mastiff race, possibly Mongol, was originally imported into 
Tibet, and at that altitude was developed into a breed of size 
and weight suitable for its uses. Research in Tibet itself 
can alone furnish sound evidence upon the subject. Whether 
the Tibetans have bred a dog as large as possible with a view 
to securing some beast analogous to the dog-lion of their 
scriptures is a matter which may reward inquiry. Buddha 
was first preached in Tibet about a.d. 632. The Chinese 
remarked of the early Tibetans that they were accustomed to 
sacrifice " sheep, dogs, and monkeys." * This race of dogs is 
known to be widely distributed throughout Tibet. Ac- 
cording to Rockhill,f mastiffs are rare in Eastern Tibet. 
Pratt states that the best specimens round Tatsienlu come 
from the Deggi district. Rockhill figures a mastiff which he 
describes as of Punaka stock. J Ramsay § says that pure 
mastiffs are procurable only in Lhasa, very handsome and 
costly to purchase. II 

During the seventeenth century Tibetan mastiffs were not 
well known to the potentates of the East, and could not have 
been exported to them, for they, and especially the Shah of 
Persia, prized exceedingly such mastiffs as they could procure 
from England through the East India Company. 

In 1614 the Company's representatives at the Court of 
the King of " Ajmere " wrote that all the dogs sent by King 

* Rockhill, " Life of Buddha," p. 204. 

f Journal R. Asiatic Soc, 1891, pp. 244 et seq. 

X " Explorations in Mongolia and Thibet," Rockhill. 

§ " Western Thibet, Lahore," 1890, p. 33. 

II Compare in Nain Sing's description of his visit to the Thok Jalung gold mines : 
" At the door of the tent was tied one of those gigantic black Lhasa dogs, of a breed 
which Nain Sing at once recognized by his deep jowl and white chest-mark." " Tibet 
the Mysterious," by Sir Thomas Holdich, p. 241. 

F 81 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

James to the King died on the voyage except one young 
mastiff which was caused to fight with a leopard and killed 
it, and also with a bear, which some dogs sent by the King 
of Persia would not touch, and so " disgraced the Persian 
dogs, whereby the King was exceedingly pleased." " Two 
or three mastiffs, a couple of Irish greyhounds, and a couple of 
well-fed water-spaniels would give him great content." 

In 1616 Sir John Roe, the Company's representative at the 
Court of the Great Mogul, wrote that of the Company's 
presents the dogs only were well liked. The next year the 
Company's factor wrote, " From the Persian Court and army 
near the confines of the Turk, twenty-five days from Ispa- 
han," that among a list of " necessaries " desired by the next 
fleet were " a suit of armour, two young and fierce mastiffs, 
and, above all, as many little dogs, both smooth and rough- 
haired, as can be sent. His women, it seems, do aim at this 
commodity." On the next day an additional list of toys 
required by the Persian monarch was sent : " Some choice 
fighting-cocks and hens, turkey cocks and hens, a dog and a 
bitch that draw dry foot — these with the little women's curs 
he chiefly desires of anything you can send him." Four 
years later, however, the factor at Ispahan states that " Their 
present of dogs is almost come to nothing. Twig, Swan, 
and one of the beagles grew mad, whereof they died, albeit 
Fras. Mason hath taken great pains with them." The Persian 
demand for British dogs continued, however, for we find the 
factor at the Persian Court waiting : " The king demands 
coats of mail, mastiffs, water and land-spaniels, Irish grey- 
hounds, and the smallest lap-dogs to be found, well-tempered 
knives, some of the finest and choicest sorts of China, drinking 
glasses, and a kind of blue stone whereof they make powder 
for eyes." 

Mastiffs continued to be exported, for in 1625 we find in 
82 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

the minutes of the Court of the East India Company a com- 
plaint that the principal mastiffs which were to have been 
sent abroad as presents were seized by the master of the 
Bear Garden for the King. It was, perhaps, in retaliation 
for such complaints that at about the same time dispatch of 
four mastiffs on one of the Company's ships was vetoed by the 
King on account of overcrowding. 

In 1623 the Company's factors at Batavia remark : " Broad 
cloth and fine perpetuanos of good and lively colours would 
yearly vend in these parts, also four or five mastiffs of a 
fair and stout kind." * 

The Tibetan mastiff was first figured in Mr. Bryan Hodg- 
son's " Drawings of Nepalese Animals." For the protection 
of their encampments against wolves, bands of robbers and 
petty thieves, for the herding of their sheep, yaks, and horses 
in a country whose climate is arctic in winter, the possession 
of a race of exceptionally powerful and shaggy dogs is a 
necessity to the Tibetan. The breed has been known to 
modern Europe since 1774, when Bogle, who was sent by 
Warren Hastings as his deputy to visit the Teshu Lama, 
mentioned the dogs as being of the shepherd breed, " the 
same kind with those called Nepal dogs, large size, often 
shagged like a lion, and extremely fierce." Bogle also refers 
to greyhounds and says, " The Pyn Cushos keep a parcel of all 
kinds of dogs at Rinjaitzay." He also refers to a " wolf 
chained at the foot of the stair." f Bower writes : " We 
bought a Tibetan sheep-dog here (at Pobrang), to guard the 
camp, for four rupees. These dogs are something like 
big, powerfully built collies, and are excellent as watch-dogs, 
but one never gets fond of them, as they possess nothing of the 
nobleness of character that European dogs have, and are 

* " Calendar of State Papers, East Indies," 1513-1625. 

t " Tibet," Bogle and Manning, Markham, pp. 68 and 116. 

83 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

generally of a suspicious and cowardly nature." * Bonvalot 
mentions " two splendid black dogs with red paws, enormous 
beasts with heads like bears." He also describes the Tibetan 
hunting-dogs. " Now and again we meet with hunters carry- 
ing matchlocks, forks, and lances, with powerful dogs in 
leash, long-haired like our shepherds' dogs, and with broad 
heads shaped like that of a bear. Many of these dogs are 
black, with reddish-brown spots, this latter being generally 
the colour of their chests and paws as it is that of the hares to 
the south of the higher tablelands, f 

It is likely that travellers have been mistaken to a con- 
siderable degree in describing the Tibetan dogs as of 
enormous size. They are large and powerful, but the 
appearance of vast size is, no doubt, largely due to their 
very thick and long coat. The size of the black-tongued 
chow dogs used in hunting deer in Yunnan Province 
is very deceptive, as is immediately apparent when they 
become thoroughly wetlted. These dogs, too, are of a sus- 
picious nature, surly and hostile to the white man. They 
are not, however, cowardly in the chase. Travellers in Thibet 
cite cases of considerable courage on the part of these dogs 
such as one in which a dog attacked a wolf without support 
of any kind. 

In 1867, Dr. W. Lockhart wrote that from Mongolia " a 
noble black dog, as large as a full-sized Newfoundland, is 
brought to Peking. He is used as a sheep-dog." X His 
function, however, was rather protection than that of the 
English sheep-dog, for, as Dr. Caius remarks : " It is not in 
Englande, as it is in France, as it is in Flanders, as it is in 
Syria, as it is in Tartaria, where the sheepe follow the 
shepherd." § 

* " Across Tibet," Bower, 1894, p. 16. 

f " Across Tibet," G. Bonvalot, Pitman's translation, vol. ii, p. 96. 
X Proc. Zool. Soc, 1867. § Abraham Fleming's translation, 1576. 

84 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

Very few specimens have reached Europe or have ever been 
seen by foreigners, consequently, attempts at accurate de- 
scription of the breed do not seem justified. A pair of dogs 
of the breed, including the Prince of Wales's " Siring," figured 
in Dalziel's " British Dogs,"* was exhibited at the Alexandra 
Palace Show in 1875. 

The race is represented throughout Mongolia by species 
no doubt closely allied, which, in size and ferocity, approach 
those of the native of Tibet. The partiality of Chinese 
leopards for canine diet is crystallized in an old Chinese 
saying, " The dog is the wine of the leopard." In MongoHa, 
however, the tables are turned, and the natives attribute 
comparative freedom from leopards to the ferocity of their 
dogs. So fierce and dangerous are these, that the Mongolians 
are obliged by their laws to come out and protect travellers 
entering their encampments. Until they receive this pro- 
tection, horsemen remain in the saddle ; foot-travellers keep 
the dogs at bay as best they can with sticks. 

The race is similar to the British mastift', but stronger and 
more heavily built. The head is longer, the pendent ears 
larger, the Hps deeper, the tail long and brush-like, the coat 
heavier, and the expression more fierce. The colour is often 
black or brown, with light muzzle and legs. The race, native 
of a country whose tablelands average 16,500 ft. above sea- 
level, is difficult to acclimatize in foreign countries, apparently 
through inability to bear the heat of summer. A pair taken 
to the alpine climate of Yunnanfu in 191 1 succumbed within 
four months. The Tibetan priests have occasionally suc- 
ceeded in rearing the breed in Peking, keeping the dogs in a 
cellar during the hot weather. Sarat Chandra Das f con- 
sidered that the race was found in a wild state in the country. 
He speaks of a collection of stuffed animals in one of the mon- 

* Vol. ii, p. 185. f " Narrative of a Journey to Lhasa," 1885. 

85 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

asteries, including specimens of " the snow leopard, wild 
sheep, goat (called Dong), stag, and wild mastiff." 

Das mentions that the dog was prized as a most useful 
animal by all classes in Tibet. The killing of dogs was 
severely punished. " If a dog is killed by blows on his hinder 
part it is to be taken for granted that it is to some extent 
blameless, as it must have been running for its life and being 
chastised or pursued. In such instances the compensation 
for a good house-dog is 37 rupees, for a dokpyi or mastiff 25 
rupees, and for a common dog 12 rupees. If a dog is killed 
by blows on its head the offence is considered very light. 
In such cases the dog is considered to have been the offender 
and to have been killed in self-defence, so that there is no 
punishment." Old English law had less sympathy for the 
dog and his master. " If any person have a dog liable to 
hurt people and he hath notice thereof and if, after, he doth 
any hurt to cattle or otherwise, it is a misdemeanour of the 
highest kinds ; and if he doth bodily hurt to any of His 
Majesty's liege subjects so that death ensue, it is Manslaughter 
or Murder in the owner of the said dog, after notice, according 
to the circumstances." * 

The importance of the house-dog to the Tibetans is shown 
by a further remark by Das : " When a thief steals a lock or 
key or a watch-dog from a house his offence will be tantamount 
to stealing the contents of the house or store to which these 
belonged. The stealing of a lock or key or a dog is the same 
as robbing the treasure which they guard." 

These customs may be connected with the ancient religious 
beliefs found in the Zend Avesta : " Whosoever shall smite 
either a shepherd's dog, or a house-dog, or a vagrant dog or a 
hunting-dog, his soul when passing to the other world, shall 
fly amid louder howling and fiercer pursuing than does the 

* Notes and Queries, 7th series, viii, p. 234. 

86 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

sheep when the wolf rushes upon it in the lofty forest. . . . 
If a man shall smite a shepherd's dog so that it becomes unfit 
for work, if he shall cut off its ear or its paw, and thereupon 
a thief or wolf break in and carry away sheep from the fold, 
without the dog giving any warning, the man shall pay for the 
lost sheep, and he shall pay for the wound of the dog as for 
wilful wounding. If a man shall smite a house-dog so that 
it becomes unfit for work . . . and thereupon a thief or a wolf 
break in . . . the man shall pay for the lost goods, and he 
shall pay for the wound of the dog." * 

In connexion with the death of the Grand Lama, Das 
states that at Tashi-Lumpo there were found " large packs of 
hounds and mastiffs which the Grand Lama had kept for 
sporting purposes, though the sacerdotal function precluded 
him from shooting animals." 

In the course of his remarks on the funeral ceremonies 
of the Tibetans, Das comments on the participation of 
dogs with vultures in the gruesome rites as to disposal of 
the dead, practised throughout Lamaist Mongolia, to this 
day. 

Sir Thomas Holdich mentions the " savage corpse-eating 
dogs which infest the purlieus of Lhasa, and says that " a 
solitary wayfarer on foot runs no little risk from the number of 
savage dogs which prowl around the city wall feeding on offal 
and human corpses." f Manning's description of Lhasa is 

* " Sacred Books of the East," vol. iv, p. 154. 

f " Tibet the Mysterious," by Sir Thomas Holdich, p. 258. " The giving of the 
dead to dogs and vultures was a Persian practice, and was perhaps a custom of great 
antiquity among the Aryans generally." " The Rise of Man," by C. R. Conder. 

" According to Strabo the manners of the Bactrians differed in little from those of 
the Scythians in their vicinity. The old men, Onesicritus asserted, were abandoned 
whilst yet living, to the dogs, which were thence called ' buriers of the dead.' ... In 
the present ritual of the Parsis the dog plays a very prominent part. Amongst other 
various particulars relating to the animal, it is enjoined that dogs of different colours 
should be made to see a dead body on its way to be exposed, either thrice or six or 
nine times, that they may drive away the evil spirit, the Daruj Nesosh, who comes 

87 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

little more pleasing. " There is nothing striking, nothing 
pleasing in its appearance. The inhabitants are begrimed 
with dirt and smut. The avenues are full of dogs, some growl- 
ling and gnawing bits of hide which lie about in profusion 
and emit a charnel-house smell ; others limping and looking 
livid ; others ulcerated ; others starved and dying and pecked 
at by ravens, some dead and preyed upon." 

Das deals with the treatment of hydrophobia in Tibet. 
His remarks are quoted as an interesting comment on the 
superstitious medical practice which is, no doubt, current in 
Tibet at the present day, and is only now losing ground in 
China where in Yunnan Province a teaspoonful of tin-filings 
and a similar quantity of copper-filings mixed daily in a dog's 
food are considered as a sovereign protection against rabies — 
a custom no more irrational than the English use of a hair of 
the dog that bit, or the Arab appeal to sympathetic magic in 
seeking to cure hydrophobia by use of the head of a dog burnt, 
reduced to ashes, and kneaded with vinegar. 

" The poison of a white rabid dog with red, flushed nose 
affects at all times ; that of a red or brown dog is more 
dangerous when one is bitten at midday, midnight, or sunrise ; 
that of a parti-coloured dog, between 8 a.m. to i p.m. ; of 
spotted ones at 9 p.m. or at twilight ; of iron-grey ones at 
night or dawn ; and that of a yellow rabid dog is sure to be 
fatal when one is bitten at dusk or 9 a.m. The baneful 
effects of this dangerous malady break out seven days after 
the bite of a white dog, one month after that of a black dog, 
16 days after that of a parti-coloured, 26 days after that of an 
ash-grey, from one month to 7I months in the case of a red, 

from the North and settles upon the carcase in the shape of a fly." " Antiquities of 
Afghanistan," p. 163, Wilson. 

" When either the yellow dog with fair eyes, or the white dog with yellow ears, is 
brought there then the Drug Nasu flies away to the regions of the North." Zend 
Avesta, Fargard, viii, 3. 

88 



SPORTING AND GUARD DOGS 

3 to 7 months in that of a blackish-yellow, one year and a 
half-month in that of a spotted, and a year and 8 months after 
the bite of a bluish-black or tiger- coloured rabid dog. It is 
difficult to cure the disease when caused by a bite of the last 
kind of dogs at 7 p.m. or dusk, or by that of a black dog at 
dawn ; but if a blue dog bites at midday, a red one at midnight, 
a spotted one at dawn, or a white one early in the morning, 
the patient can easily be cured." 



89 



CHAPTER V 
THE CHINESE LION 

The lion not indigenous : Popularity due to the introduction of Buddhism 
from India : The lion in captivity in China : Origin of lion-worship : The 
lion in Indian Buddhism : The lion in Foism : The lion in Lamaism : De- 
scription of the Lamaist lion : The spirit-lion and the lion-dog : Buddhist 
Hon-stories : Chinese artistic idea of the lion : The lion in heraldry. 

THE history and attributes of Tibetan, Pekingese and 
Japanese toy-dogs are so closely interwoven with 
those of the Buddhist lion that a digression is 
necessary in order to define their relationships. 

At the dawn of historical time the tiger held pride of place 
in popular invagination both in China and Japan. It was 
the king of land animals,* and though deposed in China, 
continues to be the royal quadruped in Corea. Early repre- 
sentations in pottery bore the character wang— *' king "—fanci- 
fully seen by the Chinese in the tiger's forehead stripes. 
Absence of references in the old writings indicates that the 
lion was altogether unknown in China up to the time of its 
introduction from abroad. The lion was unknown to Feng 
Shui, China's ancient natural science, and though the lion is 
one of the twelve'^gns of the Chinese ecliptic, in some degree 
analogous to the signs of the zodiac, as indicating the twelve 
places in which the sun and moon came into conjunction, 
the Chinese have no constellation Leo. Why then, it may 
be asked, have they adopted a foreign importation as lord of 
beasts, as the commonest motif in their art, and as the centre 

* Bushell, " Chinese Art," vol. 2, p. 9. 
90 




LAMAIST LION (mALE). BRONZE. 
YUNG HO KDNG (lAMA TEMPLE, 

PEKING), CH'IEN lung PERIOD. 

Inscription '* Ta Ching Ch'icn Lung Nien 

Tsao/' Exact date unknown 




STONE LAMAIST LION, TIEN AN MEN. 
IMPERIAL PALACE, PEKING 




THE ANIMAL WORLD REVERENCING A SACRED TREE. RELIEF 

FROM EAST GATE, SANCHI (iNDIA), ABOUT I40 B.C. 

(Gibson, " Buddhist Art in India '*) 




MING SEAL 



BRONZE LION 
SUNG PERIOD 



MING SEAL 






BRONZE LION 
MING PERIOD 



BRONZE LION 
MING PERIOD 



IVORY SEAL 
MING PERIOD 

To face p. go 



THE CHINESE LION 

of more symbolism and legend than any other beast in any 
country ? The answer is found in the close association of the 
lion with Buddhism, which was a foreign religion. Buddhism 
reached China directly from India, and indirectly, as Lamaism, 
through Tibet. 

Lions are still found in India in the State of Kathiawar.* 
There is little doubt, however, that the lion has never existed 
in the wild state in China. The few records dealing with it 
in captivity may be dismissed before entering upon more 
abstruse subjects such as the lion in Buddhism and Lamaism, 
its symbolism and relation to the lion-dog. 

The Chinese Emperors of the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.) were 
probably the first to become interested in lions. Chang 
Ch'ien, one of their envoys, returned from his Western 
travels in the year 126 B.C. and informed the Chinese Emperor 
of the wonders of India and of Buddhism. 

Intercourse between China, India, Parthia and other 
Buddhist countries became frequent from 126 B.C. onwards, 
through the Sinkiang trade route passing north of Tibet. 

The first recorded importation of lions occurred in a.d. 87. 
They came from An-hsi, Parthia. Their close association 
with Buddhism accounts for the fact that from this time 
onwards they were frequently imported as tribute or presents 
from numerous Eastern states and also from Europe, until 
the successive conquests of Islam, the declared enemy of all 
unclean beasts, interrupted communications. 

Chinese artists have always been in difficulties in their 
representations of the lion. Few of them could secure access 
to living models of the king of beasts. Consequently they 
had recourse either to the conventionalized figures, pure 

* " Lions were numerous in the northern parts of the United Provinces as late as 
the time of Bishop Heber in 1824, but are now found only in Kathiawar. The last 
specimen recorded in Northern India was killed in the Gwalior State in 1872." " The 
Oxford History of India," p. 153. 

91 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

Buddhist and, secondarily, Lamaist, for their sacred represen- 
tations, or for lay pictures to the fanciful descriptions such 
as that of the scholiasts of the Han Annals. " The lion 
resembles a tiger, and is yellow ; it has side-whiskers and 
the soft hair at the end of its tail is of the size of a grain- 
measure (tou)." " In fact, the Chinese have never had a 
correct conception of the lion, nor have their artists ever 
drawn a natural sketch of a lion from life, but merely copied 
the fanciful conventionalized types of lions introduced into 
China from India with Buddhism." * 

When the Chinese pilgrim Sung Yun (a,d. 518) saw two 
young lions at the Court of Gaudhara, he wondered that the 
pictures of these animals, common in China, were not at all 
good likenesses." f 

Lions continued to be sent to succeeding Chinese Emperors 
up to the time of K'ang Hsi. The Portuguese possessed 
lions, doubtless for the purposes of propaganda, at Macao. 

The following note is recorded as late as the sixteenth 
century : " Nothing fetched so great a price among the 
Chinese as a lion, for this beast does not occur in those 
countries. They look upon it with intense admiration, and 
give any price for it." J 

Old paintings of tribute-bearing embassies to the Chinese 
Emperors include lions gambolling with a multicoloured 
ball. 

Kublai Khan followed the example of Alexander the Great 
in keeping lions in his palace. After State banquets the wild 
beasts were paraded as a diversion for the Imperial guests. 
" Then came mummers leading lions which they caused to 
salute the lord with a reverence," says Friar Odoric. 



* " Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty," Laufer, pp. 238-9. 
t Z. Yule, " Marco Polo," third edition, vol. i, p. 399. 
X " Cathay and the Way Thither," vol. ii, p. 298. 



92 



THE CHINESE LION 

There existed in Peking in Kublai Khan's time small dogs 
which so resembled lions that a Chinese historian in describing 
the Imperial menagerie remarks that the lions are of the 
same colour and astonishingly like the golden-coated nimble 
dogs which are commonly bred by the people in their homes.* 

The following description of a fourteenth-century Imperial 
hunt f seems worth quotation, though Marco Polo always 
mistakes tigers for lions. " When the Great Khan {Magnus 
Canis) goes a hunting 'tis thus ordered. At some twenty 
days' journey from Cambalech (Peking) there is a fine forest 
of eight days' journey in compass ; and in it are such multi- 
tudes and varieties of animals as are truly wonderful. All 
round this forest there be keepers posted on account of the 
Khan, to take diligent charge thereof ; and every third or 
fourth year he goeth with his people to this forest. On such 
occasions they first surround the whole forest with beaters, 
and let slip the dogs and the hawks trained to this sport, and 
then, gradually closing in upon the game, they drive it to a 
certain fine open spot that there is in the middle of the wood. 
Here there becomes massed together an extraordinary multi- 
tude of wild beasts, such as lions, wild oxen, bears, stags, 
and a great variety of others, and all in a state of the greatest 
alarm. For there is such a prodigious noise and uproar 
raised by the birds and the dogs that have been let slip into 
the wood, that a person cannot hear what his neighbour says ; 
and all the unfortunate wild beasts quiver with terror at the 
disturbance. And when they all have been driven together 
into that open glade, the Great Khan comes up on three 
elephants and shoots five arrows at the game." 

Chinese history relates in detail how two hundred and 
fifty years later the Emperor Kang Hsi, with the aid of two 

* Jih Hsia Chiu Wen K'ao. 

t " Cathay and the Way Thither," Yule. 

93 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

hunting lions overcame two bears, one of them weighing 
1300 catties, and deposited the skins stretched over wooden 
dummies in the Yung Ho Kung (Lama temple), where the 
dummies may still be seen. It may be that these hunting 
lions were useful rather for the prestige they gave their 
masters than for the hunting itself. Rameses II and III 
each possessed a tame lion which accompanied them to 
battle and attacked the enemy. Budge, however, remarks 
that they were probably more valued as symbols of the 
Sun-god than as effective combatants. The Egyptians be- 
lieved that a god was always incarnate in their king. 

Passing now to the religious aspect of the subject it may 
be suggested that the origin of lion-worship goes back to a 
time when lions were very plentiful in Northern Africa and 
in Asia, and perhaps to a period when man's unequal struggle 
with the King of Beasts was habitually decided in favour of 
the latter. The lion was worshipped by the Egyptians and 
was usually associated with the sun-god. Sacred lions were 
kept at many places throughout Egypt. By the time of the 
reign of Tiglath-pileser, King of Assyria, 700 B.C., lion- 
worship was probably in its decline in that country, for lion 
hunting had become the favourite sport of the Assyrian 
kings, and this ruler boasts, " Under the auspices of Nineb 
(God of War), my patron, I killed 120 lions in my youthful 
ardour, in the fulness of my manly might on my own feet ; 
and 800 lions I killed from my chariot." This humbling of 
the lion was effected probably in Syria. Lower Egypt was 
occupied by the Assyrians early in the sixth century B.C., 
but by its close the Assyrian power had been superseded by 
that of Babylon, to be overthrown in its turn by Cyrus, King 
of the Persians, in 539 B.C. 

The Persians, previous to the Mohammedan conquest, paid 
special homage to the lion. It is not possible to define the 

94 




AW^ 

.^^f"^- 



sr^r: 



>^ 




IRON LIONS BEFORE THE TEMPLE OF CHIAO CHUN, GOD OF COOKERY 
PEKING, 1665. K'ANG HSI PERIOD 





LAMAIST BRONZE LIONS, MODERN 
(from the TEMPLE OF A HOUSEHOLD, PEKING) 



To face p. g\ 



THE CHINESE LION 

period at which this veneration gave way to simple curiosity 
and the interest of the menagerie owner. In the temples of 
the Persian goddess Anahita the lions were so tame that 
they caressed visitors to her shrine in the most friendly 
manner. 

In Greece lions were used by the priests of Cybele for 
exorcising devils, as they are used in North Africa to this 
day.* 

The lion was associated with Buddhism from a very early 
date, for Asoka, the Buddhist Emperor of India, whose 
conversion took place 260 B.C., and to whose extreme activity 
Buddhism owes its world-wide expansion and possibly its 
very existence, erected many stone and wooden pillars often 
bearing Buddhist inscriptions and capped by a crouching 
Buddhist Hon. He orders one of the edicts to be chiselled 
" wheresoever stone pillars exist." This, together with the 
active Chinese belief in charms and amulets, is very possibly 
the origin of the innumerable lion-surmounted pillars found 
throughout China in cemeteries, on the sign-poles of shops, 
on bridges, and in fact wherever an opportunity for such 
ornamentation occurs. f The figure of a lion is frequently 
used as a charm in front of a Chinese door. A similar charm 
exists in Assyria. " Spin together hair from a dog and hair 
from a lion and thread three cornelians thereon, bind it on 
and he shall recover," is a magical prescription against 
sickness in that country.]; The theory of subjection of the 
lion to Buddha probably existed in Asoka's time. The lion 
on the famous Lauriya pillar, for instance, was apparently 
used to exemplify the subjection of the fiercest passions to 
the gentle influences of Buddhism and possibly to vivify 

* Sir A. Pease, " The Book of the Lion." 

f For notes on the lion-pillars of Shensi, see Laufer, "Pottery of the Han 
Dynasty," p. 240. 
J " Semitic Magic," R. Campbell Johnson, p. Ixiv. 

95 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

Buddhist approval of the setting up of " curative arrange- 
ments for beasts " everywhere in India " as far as Ceylon " 
and to the borders of " Antiochus the Greek King." * 

Chinese representations of the Buddhist " true " or sacred 
lions may be classified as being of two distinct types : the 
pure Buddhist and the Lamaist. The former is that which 
came to China with early Indian Buddhism or Foism, possibly 
before the division of Buddhism into the great Northern 
and Southern sects after the Council of Jalandhara (a.d. ioo), 
and certainly before the arrival of Lamaism. 

This variety is represented without harness. Its mane is 
not curled, and there is no orb or cub beneath the paw of 
male or female. The influence of this Southern Buddhism 
or Foism was strong in China up to the middle of the seventh 
century, when Buddhism declined rapidly in Northern India, 
finally becoming extinct, except in Ceylon, the Chinese " lion 
country," whose armorial bearings are lions to this day. 
What Buddhism lost in India, however, it gained in Tibet, 
whence (dating from the seventh century a.d.) it obtained 
both religious and political supremacy. 

Buddhism did not establish itself firmly among the Chinese 
until the year a.d. 67, when the Emperor Ming Ti publicly 
encouraged Buddhist missionaries from India and himself 
embraced Buddhism. 

The practice of placing monuments before doorways in 
China is recorded as early as the anterior T'ang Dynasty, 
about 1766-1753 B.C., but the earliest recorded instance 
found in Chinese literature of the use of stone lions is in the 
case of the palace of Huo Bin, an important official who died 
in 117 B.C., soon after Chang Chien's return from the West. 

Buddhism flourished exceedingly in China, and became 
the State religion in the fifth and sixth centuries. Early in 

* " Asoka," Vincent A. Smith. 
96 



THE CHINESE LION 

the T'ang dynasty (a.d. 618-906) the headquarters of the 
faith was moved from India, in which its power was fast 
giving place to Hinduism, to China, which was then a world- 
power, and as such was appealed to by many of the countries 
of Central Asia for defence against the rising power of the 
Arabs and Mohammed. There is no doubt that representa- 
tions of the Buddhist lion, as well as of its living original, 
became very common during the T'ang and Sung Dynasties — 
the golden period of Chinese art — though few have come 
down to us. 

Tibet was conquered by Genghis Khan about a.d. 1206, 
and Kublai Khan was thus brought into contact with 
Lamaism. He called the Grand Lama to his Court, and, 
after consulting the representatives of Christianity and several 
other faiths, he ultimately adopted as his State religion 
Lamaism, which thus received a mighty accession of 
strength.* 

The Lama priests of Tibet distinguished between " true 
lions " — the spiritual beasts whose images are found in the 
Buddhist sacred places — and " dog-lions," the earthly beasts 
known to the menagerie. They teach that the true lion is a 
mountain spirit, having powers of instantaneous projection 
through space, visible or invisible at will, and similarly 
capable of infinite magnification or reduction of size. 

The Lamaist lion was no doubt produced in Tibet before 
the seventh century a.d. by the grafting upon Buddhism of 
the sun-worship of Egypt, the nature-worship of the races of 
the Euphrates Valley, the Christian influence of the Nestorians 
and superstitions of numerous cults persisting after the 
break-up of the Babylonian and Assyrian empires. These 
were all subjected, for their visible representation, to Greek 
influence, for Greek art was, during the first three centuries 

* " L. A. Waddell's " Lamaism." 

G 97 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

of our era at least, an article of exportation,* and artists and 
artasters seem to have travelled ever5rwhere in search of 
employment, adapting the models of their native art to the 
requirements of the local religion. Laufer remarks, " I have 
no doubt that the prototype of the figure of the lion on the 
Han pottery reliefs found its way to China through the 
same channels as the design of the archer on horseback ; i.e. 
through the medium of Scythian and old Siberian art. The 
occurrence of the lion on works of Scythian art is very 
frequent ; and as to Siberia, we have many examples of it 
on the famous gold plaques of the Eremitage, on which, as 
in China, the lion is represented, particularly in hunting 
scenes. The type of the Scythian and Siberian lion is 
undoubtedly derived from Mycenian and Greek art, and 
thus the transplanting of it to Chinese soil is historically and 
logically accounted for." 

The Lamaists teach that the " dog- lion " is as inferior to 
the " true lion " of their religion as is the canine species to 
the leonine. These species are, however, as will be explained 
later, closely connected in Buddhist lore, and the commonly 
found Western fallacy suggesting that Buddhists reverence 
dogs and that Chinese toy-dogs are held sacred, based no 
doubt on the likeness between the sacred lion and the 
Pekingese dog, has found support from the Lamaist association 
of the lion-dog with the sacred spirit-lion found in Tibetan 
scripture. Both Tibetans and Chinese have no doubt bred 
a race of toy-dogs to resemble as closely as possible their 
respective ideas of the spirit- lion. 

The close connexion of Tibetan lore with Egyptian science 
is commented on by Captain Turner, one of the first English- 
men to enter Tibet, sent by Warren Hastings in an endeavour 
to open up trade intercourse in 1800. Turner mentions that 

* " Buddhist Art in India," Burgess. 
98 




PORCELAIN LIONS. MING PERIOD 





TERRA-COTTA INCENSE-BURNERS. MING PERIOD 
(author's COLLECTION) See p. 121 



To face p. gS 



THE CHINESE LION 

he received a visit from Soopoon Choomboo, one of the 
high officials, and remarks, " He w^as accompanied by the 
Treasurer ; our conversation w^as extremely miscellaneous. 
Egypt, in their language eunani, and the lions, singhi,* vv^ere 
favourite topics of conversation with him. Between this 
country indeed and Tibet there seemed at some time or 
other to have existed a frequent communication, and Egypt 
appeared even now to merit respectful mention whenever 
they named it. From hence perhaps they have derived their 
veneration for the sovereign of brutes, which they evince by 
the distinguished place they assign him in their sacred 
architecture. 

" There is no religious edifice but what is adorned with 
the head of the lion at every angle, having bells pendant from 
his lower jaw, and the same figure is equally common at 
every projection of the palace walls. It is certain that no 
contiguous country can supply an example of the animal 
existing in it, in a state of nature, at this day. The lake 
Maunserore was mentioned to me, as having lions on its 
banks, but this assertion I considered as fabulous, originating 
possibly in a desire to attach greater dignity to the source of 
the Ganges and Bermapooter by adding to it one more 
object of veneration. 

" Lions are the natives of a warmer region ; the burning 
sands of Nubia, Ethiopia and Arabia seem to be their proper 
habitation. But be this as it may, we see the head of the 
lion held up in Tibet with marks of high distinction and 
respect, though we can trace no certain clue to discover by 
what means he obtained the honour." j- 

*|Laufer says that the Tibetan word for " lion " (seng-ge) was borrowed from the 
Sanskrit simha. Giles translates suan {suan-i is a lion-like animal occurring in 
Chinese literature before the lion was known in China) as " a lion from Tibet." 
Research may show that suan-ni and seng-ge have a common origin. 

f " An account of an Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama in Tibet," by 
Captain Sam. Turner, 1800. 

99 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

In sharp opposition to Foism, which favoured simplicity, 
the Tibetans have done their utmost to centre upon the 
lion, which in Lamaism has become the most picturesque of 
its minor retainers, the maximum of fable and superstition. 
The Lamaists appear to have desired to conjure up a visible 
symbol of the power of their faith in order to impress its 
realism upon a people which, being isolated from the rest of 
the world, is uneducated, credulous and highly superstitious. 

The best representations of the Tibetan Buddhist lion 
which have come down to us are those of bronze or stone 
which stood originally in the southern doorways of the 
Imperial or Princes' palaces or of the Lama temple in 
Peking. They represent a short-bodied beast, well knit and 
of extraordinary strength, with massive legs and pads, head 
somewhat rectangular, sometimes ornamented with stars, 
nose short, the whole aspect being canine rather than feline. 
The face, with broad, thick pug-nose and gaping mouth, 
shows the influence of early medieval art exemplified in the 
ogres and gargoyles of Western religion. The mane is 
extraordinarily bushy, wig-like, in fact, and made up of curls 
as of conch-shells, with compressed volutes both right and 
left-handed. A straight whisker or beard split in the middle 
hangs from the lower lip. There are fringes behind the 
fore-arms and heels of the hind legs. The tail is short, with 
a bushy tip. The beast is harnessed with a broad and very 
open collar studded with brass openwork. From it hang 
pointed tassels or perhaps a bell attached by a ring to a 
ram-horned lion-head with flaring side-mane, at the apex of 
the somewhat pointed chest. There emerges from behind 
the mane a double tape-like leading-string, shortened by 
knots and loops, resting on the back and terminating at the 
insertion of the tail. These animals are, of course, recognized 
by all Chinese as lions distinct from all the numerous lion- 

100 





LIONS IN LACQUERED WOOD, SHOP-FRONT, PEKING 





LIONS IN BLACKWOOD, PEKING 



To face p. loo 



THE CHINESE LION 

like beasts included in Oriental mythology. Figures of the 
kind are invariably in pairs, one of which, the male, has its 
right pad set upon a ball of coarse embroidered pattern, while 
the left pad of the female rests upon a lion-cub holding the 
beak-like c^aws of the lioness in its mouth. The ethereal 
nature of the beasts is shown by flame-like emanations often 
represented as playing over their bodies. The figures are set 
each upon a richly embroidered cloth called the '* ching- 
ti'erh " or " Bible-cloth," of a design found in similar 
Assyrian monuments, which is used in Tibet for covering the 
temple tables where the sacred books are laid. This cloth 
overlies a low pedestal of framework design, which is also 
richly ornamented and similar to the tables, being built low 
to serve as a seat on which the Tibetan priest sits crossed- 
legged when reading. A very frequent addition is that of a 
cord or noose held in the mouth of the lion as if in play. 
Numerous small modifications and additions occur, such as 
stars on the body of the lion. Similar stars are found on 
Assyrian, Siberian, Tibetan and Chinese lions alike, thus 
clearly demonstrating a close common art-origin. What these 
stars represent does not appear to have been explained. 

The relationship of the " true " or " spirit-lion " and the 
lion-dog is defined by the following extract from the Tibetan 
sacred writings : "In the West there was a Buddha named 
Manjusri (the Chinese Wenshu) who was always accom- 
panied by a small ' hah-pah ' (pet) dog and who travelled 
the four continents as a simple priest. On his travels he one 
day met a Taoist who begged him to obtain an audience with 
Manjusri. The Buddha invited the Taoist to accompany 
him to his home. When the Taoist had taken tea and rice, 
he again requested the Buddha to secure for him a vision of 
Manjusri Buddha. The Buddha told him that he must 
observe his vows with great strictness and that Manjusri 

lOI 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

would then be manifested to him. On this the Taoist, 
bursting into anger, cried vehemently, ' I am indeed keeping 
my vows. If not, why should I have come hither to see the 
Buddha ? ' Then said the Buddha, ' If this be verily so, look 
up into the sky.' The Taoist raised his head and perceived 
in the sky a glow of five-coloured light together with clouds 
of five colours. In the heavens he saw the ' hah-pah ' dog 
transformed into a mighty lion with the Buddha riding upon 
his back. The Taoist had affinity with Buddha in a previous 
incarnation, and consequently was enabled to see the true 
Buddha.* 

It is of interest to note that St. Thomas the Apostle, who 
is believed through the traditions of the early Church to 
have propagated Christianity in India, High Asia and to the 
Walls of China, is represented by Indian tradition as having 
come to India riding upon a lion and accompanied by two 
dogs.f 

The association of a god with a canine assistant dates from 
the time of Anubis worship in Egypt. In Asia it can be 
traced back to a period anterior to the separation of the 
Persians and Hindus, the myth being found in the religions 
of both peoples. The dog of Mithras, god of the sky and a 
divinity of light, was venerated as the companion of the deity 
by the Persians. The worship of Mithras, deified before 
405 B.C., was modified later by the star-worship of the 
Chaldeans, who identified Mithras with Shamash, god of the 
sun, by the Armenian religion, and by that of the Greeks of 
Asia Minor, who identified Mithras with Helios. About 
60 B.C. the worship of Mithras was brought to Rome, and it 
became so fashionable that during the second and third 
centuries a.d. it constituted a formidable rival to Christianity. 
Mithras slaying the " earth-bull " with the help of his dog 

* Tibetan " Yuan Liu " Ching. f Marignolli, 1338. 

102 



THE CHINESE LION 

is frequently represented in Roman sculpture. Persian bas- 
reliefs represent Mithras in the form of a youth wearing a 
conical cap, slaying the sacred bull, whose sacrifice was 
supposed to have originated terrestrial life. His dog is 
shown springing towards the wound in the bull's side. 
Accompanying these are a serpent, a raven, a lion, symbolizing 
the element fire, and a torch-bearer.* 

Some believe that light on the origins of certain early 
Egyptian practices is to be found among the customs of the 
tribes of Africa. Speke f mentions that the heraldic device 
of Mtesa, King- of Uganda, consisted of a white dog, a shield, 
a spear, and a woman. On state occasions Mtesa was 
accustomed to lead a small dog on a leash. 

Another of the Lama Gospels says, " The lion is the King 
of Beasts. Its power of increase is without limit. Similarly 
it may diminish (at will) and become like unto a dog. Even 
so is the anger of man. He who keepeth his anger in subjec- 
tion shall be free from calamity, but the woe of him that 
shall fail to bridle his wrath shall be even as the boundless 
increase in size of the lion. Through the lion's form there- 
fore is the nature of anger known unto man."]; 

The dog-lion idea is illustrated by the Chinese written 
character for " lion." The most important Order of Merit 
given to high State officials in China from the earliest times 
included the decorations Great Instructor and Lesser In- 
structor (T'ai Shih, Shao Shih). Since the introduction of 
Buddhism these ranks, because Shih also means " lion," 
have been pictorially represented by lions. This custom 
originated in part from the fact that up to the T'ang Dynasty 
(a.d. 6 1 8) the " lion " and " Instructor " characters as well 
as sounds were identical. The root " dog " was subsequently 

* See Mithras, Encyclopedia Britannica. 

t " Travels to the Sources of the Nile." \ Tu Lu Wa Ching. 

103 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

introduced into the " lion " character to make it clear that a 
beast and not a human being was indicated. The composite 
nature of the character aptly illustrates the blending of the 
identities of the lion with that of the dog in the Chinese 
imagination. 

In Shantung the natives call the small lion figures which 
guard the roof-corners of all Chinese temples and date from 
the T'ang period " hai pah kou" (sea small dogs). The deer- 
heads which guard the roof- trees are called " chang k'ou 
shou " (long-mouthed beast or beast-heads). The geomantic 
idea is that the dogs, resembling spirit-lions in being the 
denizens of the deep, are able to protect buildings against 
fire, and that the long-mouthed beasts devouring the wind 
are a sure protection against destruction by the powers of 
the air. 

Images of the Buddhist lion are found in miniature before 
the altar of the god in many Chinese households. They 
undoubtedly participate in the veneration due to their Master, 
but though sometimes known to the unlettered as the dogs 
of Fo or Buddha, are not reverenced as dogs. 

In India from the earliest times the Buddhists pictured 
curious leonine creatures with dog's heads among the mythical 
animals which worshipped at the sacred places in order to 
obtain a better incarnation. 

The Chinese idea of subjection of lions to Buddha is 
exemplified by two stories from the Life of Buddha compiled 
by Pao Ch'eng, a Chinese monk of the Ming dynasty : 

Devadatta turned the heart of King Ajatasatru against 
Buddha, and persuaded him to come to his city with a view 
to crushing him and his disciples under the feet of inebriated 
elephants. " On the next day at the hour of meat, Buddha 
and his arhats entered the city. Forthwith a herd of elephants 
rendered drunk with wine charged them with fierce trumpet- 
104 





WOODEN LION, PEKING 



LION FIGURES GUARDING A CORNER OF 
PAVILION-ROOF. SUMMER PALACE, PEKING 




Pholn, ZumbruDl, Peking 

STONE PEDESTAL OF PAILOU BUILT BY THE EMPEROR YUNG LOU. MING 
TOMBS, NEAR PEKING. ETHEREAL LIONS WITH THE EMBROIDERED BALL 



AND TAPE-LIKE CORDS 



To face p, 104 





IRON LIONS. YAO WANG TEMPLE, PEKING 
Dedicated to Cheng Lung, God of Medicine, K'angHsi Period 





(lama temple, PEKING) 



To face p. 104 



THE CHINESE LION 

ings, overthrowing walls and bursting in houses. The arhats 
took refuge by lifting themselves into the air. Anandha 
alone remained with Buddha. The elephants bore down 
upon them, head to head. Then Buddha stretched forth one 
hand whose fingers changed themselves into five lions which 




Buddha's victory over the inebriated elephants 

FROM DR. L. WIEGER'S "BUDDHISM " 

roared with a voice shaking heaven and earth. The elephants 
prostrated themselves in terror, marking their repentance by 
the shedding of tears." 

A similar story is that of the subjection of the infuriated 
bufi^alo. 

" Scarcely had Buddha entered the jungle when the wicked 
buffalo burst upon him at a gallop with erect tail and lowered 
horns, bellowing furiously. Buddha calmly extended his 

105 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

hand, whose five fingers became five lions. At the same 
time a circle of fire surrounded Buddha, the lions, and the 
infuriated beast. The buffalo, terrified by the lions and held 
captive by the fire, prostrated itself before Buddha, hung its 
head in a contrite manner and licked his feet. The buffalo 
ceased to eat and drink, died, and was reborn a deva in the 
heaven of Indra." * 

The idolatry practised by the Lamas caused them to 
animate the Hon images standing before their temples just as 
the feeling for nature in early Indian Buddhist art vivified 
the Western forms of sculpture introduced from Greece and 
Rome. As a recent example of the veneration of the Buddhist 
" true-lion " there may be mentioned an incident which 
occurred in the case of a pair of Ming lions now standing 
outside the Peking Chien Men. When removing these in 
May 1916 from what is now called the Kung Fu, in old days 
the palace of Prince Wu, east of the Imperial City, great 
difficulty was found in unseating the second from its pedestal. 
A Buddhist priest was called in. He offered wine to the 
spirit on an altar improvised before the idol. An incantation 
written in red characters on yellow paper was then affixed to 
the lion's breast. Its eyes were bound with red cloth. The 
idol then vacated its pedestal without further demur. 

A more recent example is reported from Honan. "At 
Ucheng every expedient had been used to attract the rain. 
After processions to the city temple and putting the idol out 
to the sun a while had failed, the stone lions at the entrance 
of the temple were sprinkled with water. This failed also 
to bring the rain. The south gate was kept shut because 
'fire is in the South,' thus causing travellers to make a 
detour of some miles in order to catch their morning train."! 

* " Buddhism," vol. ii, Dr. L. Wieger. 
t North China Herald, February 7, 1920, 

106 



THE CHINESE LION 

Among the Assyrians the bull was the sign of the god borne 
to battle in the same way as the standards of the Romans, 
and, just as the Cross and the Crescent became the emblems 
of warring religions in later days, so the lion appears to have 
been adopted by the Buddhists, whose faith preaches peace 




BUDDHA'S CONVERSION OF BUFFALOES. FROM 

DR. L. wieger's "buddhism " 



and humanity as their heraldic symbol. Buddhism has 
never appealed to the grim arbitrament of war for the imposing 
of its doctrines upon foreign nations, and it is therefore 
natural that its symbols should have failed to assume the 
accentuated and universally realized importance which, largely 
on account of warlike operations, accrued to the similar 
symbols of Christianity and Mohammedanism. 
To the Western mind utilization of the King of Beasts to 

107 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

symbolize docility and the subjection of human passions 
under the benign influence of religion appears so great a 
contradiction as to be almost paradoxical and even grotesque. 
It may, however, seem to the Chinese equally grotesque in 
the Crusaders to have adopted lions of wonderful form as 
the commonest of armorial bearings when battling to extend 
by dint of arms their idea of the faith of the Prince of Peace. 

European heraldry and armory originated with the Cru- 
sades. The knowledge of natural history possessed by the 
mediaeval artists was limited. They proved themselves 
capable of depicting shaggy figures of lions frequently of 
astonishing tenuity of body, crowned with two heads, their 
tails being sometimes bifurcated and of remarkable length. 
These creations often boasted numerous other highly fanciful 
and astonishing characteristics * illustrated by the British 
coat-of-arms. The Chinese need not be too severely criti- 
cized in adopting somewhat inaccurate sculptured representa- 
tions for the chief animal retainers of Buddhism f and for 
connecting with these certain myths which are composed of 
too flimsy material to resist the test of modern scientific 
inquiry. 

Use of the lion as a heraldic emblem by the Chinese 
appears to have been only slightly developed, but that the 
heraldic idea has existed is indicated by the facts that the use 
of leonine images before doorways was restricted by law to 
temples and official buildings, that the size of their bronze or 
stone representations indicated the importance of the building 

* See Davies, " Guide to Heraldry." 

f The inaccuracies, moreover, are partly Indian. " The conventionalized lion of 
Indian art betrays its anterior Asiatic character, particularly in the arrangement of 
the mane. A series of lion-like animals appear in art as early as the Asoka period. 
Especially these conventionalized lions became still more baroque. The so-called 
sardulas (N. India) and yalis (S. India) of the later Indian art are overloaded with 
shaggy hair and petty curls." A. Griinvvedel, " Buddhistische Studien," vol. v, 
p. 70. 

108 




-^-A 



RECENT PAINTING OF LIONS (POPULAR TYPE) BY THE FAMOUS PAINTER REN HSUN 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

or of its official inhabitant, and that in certain princely 
palaces in Peking the door-guardians are, to use the termi- 
nology of heraldry, statant instead of sejant, the latter being 
the customary posture of the Buddhist lion in China. It is 
to be noted, too, that the Buddhist lions, like the Egyptian 
gryphon, traditionally occupy the position of the " sup- 
porters " in heraldry, an art which is of course mediaeval and 
comparatively young in its origins. 

In most exceptional cases only was it possible for a Chinese 
painter to see a living lion. Consequently the strolling street 
artist, who even now continues to educate Chinese opinion 
in matters artistic, was obliged, in his efforts to obtain an 
accurate model, to fall back upon the word-pictures of the 
literary, or the Buddhist statues. The literati, unfortunately, 
were anything but efficient in powers of accurate description 
and scientific detail. As already remarked, the Chinese 
historians who recorded the first importation of lions described 
them as being bearded, with whiskers and hairy ears. The 
bushiness of their tails and manes was likened to the horse 
or rhinoceros hair-tassel which figured on the top of the 
old-fashioned Chinese official hat. 

Chinese painters love to portray the lion in a style restricted 
to a common type, showing variations only in detail. These 
variations were never so fanciful as the liberties in which 
mediaeval heraldic designers so freely indulged at the expense 
of the exact attributes of the Royal Beast. 

To the mediaeval knight the " gryphon " had a very real 
existence, and the weightiest of arguments would no doubt 
have been available to convince any who might have had the 
temerity to doubt the existence or importance of the " griffin " 
prototype. It must be noted that the naive temperament of 
Eastern nations disposes them to regard even animal images 
used decoratively as the living animals they represent. The 
no 



THE CHINESE LION 

European unicorn is a blend of the horse and the bull. The 
head, body and legs of the animal are those of a horse ; the 
feet, tail and horn of the nature of those of a bull. 

It is a point in favour of the common origin of symbols 
that the Chinese have also their lion and unicorn. The 
popular idea is that the unicorn is of the size of a goat with 
a horn projecting from the centre of its forehead. It has the 
power of distinguishing right from wrong, and for this 
reason legend has employed it, like the lodan Moran of the 
Hebrews, in a court of justice, to indicate guilt by pointing 
with its horn Many Chinese writers assert that this animal 
exists to the present day in Tibet. Chinese bronzes repre- 
sent the unicorn with a parrot on its back. In these, the 
unicorn symbolizes dumb justice, while the parrot stands for 
the talkative advocate capable of expounding the truth. 
There may be a possible comparison of the lion and the 
unicorn in China with the lion and the unicorn of the royal 
arms of England. Each nation appears to hold the lion for 
strength and the unicorn for justice. No other existing 
nation possesses these emblems, and the only others to have 
held them are the houses of Judah and Israel. In many 
passages in the Old Testament Judah is referred to as a lion. 
Israel, on the other hand, is referred to variously as both 
animals. " He (Israel) hath as it were the strength of an 
unicorn : he shall eat up the nations his enemies, and shall 
break their bones, and pierce them through with his arrows. 
He couched, he lay down as a lion, and as a great lion : who 
shall stir him up .? " * 

* Numbers xxiv. 



Ill 



CHAPTER VI 

SYMBOLISM OF THE BUDDHIST AND 
LAMAIST LION 

IN Christian ecclesiastical art the lion is sometimes used 
to represent the devil, who goes about " like a roaring 
lion," but more frequently symbolizes the Redeemer 
himself on account of its royalty, courage, watchfulness, 
strength, and alleged mercy to the fallen. At the church 
door lions symbolized the watchfulness of God over His 
people, noting their going out and their coming in, and 
spying out all their ways, watching also for their protection 
and to guard the sanctuary.* 

The significance of the lion in Buddhism is altogether 
different. " Buddha placed the lions before his temple that 
his priests might remember to subject their passions." The 
Lamaist idea is that Buddha on entering his temple has 
ordered the two lions which have accompanied him to seat 
themselves upon the altar-cloth-covered tables set at the 
door, and that by awaiting his return in motionless obedience 
they serve as a reminder of the subjection of the passions by 
the Holy Creed. 

It appears likely that the Tibetans owe the form of their 
lion monuments to Greek travelling artists, and much of 
their lion lore to the Egyptians. In Egypt the lion was a 
hieroglyphic or sacred character before the Chinese began to 
write and long before Tibet or the lion became known to 

• " Sacristy," Herr B. Eckl. 
112 




3!2saassSS^>;i; 




ip'%'i 




To face p. uz 



SYMBOLISM— BUDDHIST AND LAMAIST LION. 

the ancients of the Far East. Wallis Budge states that the 
Egyptians believed that the gates of dawn and evening 
through which the Sun-god passed each day were guarded 
by lion-gods. In order to keep evil spirits and fleshly foes 
from those who dwelt within, they placed statues of the lion to 
guard the living at the doors of their palaces, and to guard 
the dead at the doors of their tombs.* Other authorities 
state that being persuaded that the lion slept with his eyes 
open, the Egyptians placed the figure of this animal at the 
entrance of their temples. f 

Another monument common to Buddhism and the religions 
of Western Asia is that of a Divine Being riding upon a 
lion. The idea of subjection of the King of Beasts to the 
might of religion is no doubt common to all such representa- 
tions. Cybele, standing on a car drawn by lions, was 
worshipped in Phrygia. Atargatis, the great Syrian goddess 
of Hierapolis-Bambyce, was portrayed sitting on lions and 
wearing a tower on her head. In the rock-hewn sculptures 
of Bogaz-Keui, a youth stands on a lioness oi panther 
immediately behind the great goddess, who is supported by 
a similar animal.J 

It appears likely that the Oriental deities, represented as 
standing or sitting in human form on the backs of lions or 
other animals, were in the original religions indistinguishable 
from the beasts themselves. With a growth of the knowledge 
and power of man he discontinued worship of the bestial 
shape, and gradually recognizing that his worship was directed 
rather towards the abstract principle of power and majesty, 
super-imposed a human or divine form having the lower 
nature in complete subjection. 

• A. E. Wallis Budge, " The Gods of the Egyptians." 

t Buffon, " Histoire Naturelle," vol. vi. 

X " The Golden Bough," Hazer, vol. i, p. 137. 

H 113 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

Chinese Buddhism * represents Wenshu Buddha, the God 
of Learning (the Tibetan Manjusri), as riding upon a lion, 
in company with Kuan-yin, Goddess of Mercy, ridmg upon 
a hou, and Pu-hsien upon an elephant, pacifying the warrmg 
demons of the earth at the beginning of history. Trans- 
ference of the attributes of one divinity to a supporter is 
illustrated by the fact that the Buddhists accord to the hon 
greater wisdom than to any other of the lower creation. Its 
sagacity is likened to the learning of its master, Wenshu. 

The harness with which all Lamaist lions are adorned 
assists in symbolizing the servitude of the lion to Buddha. 

The lion was to some extent used in the sense of bemg the 
champion of Buddhism, also as a defender of Buddha and 
of the faithful ; for Buddhists often burn two lions made of 
fir twigs at the funeral of important officials, with the object 
of expressing a hope that the guardians of Buddhism may 
protect the deceased in the life to come. 

A further use of the simile of lion-subjugation occurs m 

the Lamaist writings : 

" Buddha released the wild beasts of a certain mountam 
from the depredations of the lion by causing them to read 
his Bible. The lion, finding that he no longer hungered for 
their flesh and that they lived in no fear of him, discovered 
the secret of the miracle from the fox. The lion then asked 
Buddha for instruction, and as a result his temperament was 
changed to active benevolence. By this means it is proved 
that the power of Buddha's Bible in leading to do good is 
without Umit. The lion crouches before the seat of Buddha 
to eternity. Two lions sit before his seat, and eight lions 
around it." t 

* Fung Shen Pang, " Popular Book of Superstitions " (recent, but universally 

known in China.) 
f Cha Pu Lao P'an Yuan Bible. 

114 



SYMBOLISM— BUDDHIST AND LAMAIST LION 

This is therefore a Buddhist realization of the pious 
thought contained in the Hebrew prophecy of the time when 
" the leopard shall lie down with the kid ; and the calf and 



#.-{3^+ s 

.,.*'-■!! "^^^-^^-^^f 




WENSHU (MANJUSRI) BUDDHA RIDING UPON A LION, PU-HSIEN UPON AN ELEPHANT, AND 
KUAN-YIN MOUNTING A HOU (FUNG SHEN PANG) 

the young lion and the fatling together," " and the lion shall 
eat straw like the ox." * 

The attributes of the two lions before Buddhist temples 
are celebrated at religious " Lion-masques " held from time 
to time all over China, Tibet, and in Japan, where, as 
remarked by Captain Brinkley, the so-called Dog or Lion of 
Fo (Shishi no Kachira) is carried in the Sano procession in 
Tokyo. In China a pair of Uon-head cardboard masks with 
cloth bodies, counterfeiting the temple guardians, are carried 
in procession from certain temples. Sometimes they are made 
to halt at the temple door and playfully bar ingress to 

* Is. xi. 6-7. 

"5 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

demons. They are then made to follow a large knitted ball 
to some eminence, where they sport with it to the delighted 
applause of large audiences. 

These plays are known as " Shuah Shih-tzu " or " Exer- 
cizing the Lions." They are promoted by the pious for 
collecting charitable subscriptions and at the same time 
acquiring religious merit. They are comparable to the old 
English mystery plays. Several temples in Peking possess 
lion-mask counterfeits of the pair of lions guarding the 
temple entrance. The embroidered ball of the monuments 
is represented in these plays by a coloured cloth attached to 
a staff. In the illustrations the player on the right will be 
seen holding this emblem. 

Although Buddha is now known to have been born about 
550 B.C., the cosmogonical form of Indian Buddhism, as 
early as the first century a.d., was set forth as existent from 
all eternity. It was therefore easy to incorporate sun-myths, 
and the importation of these into Buddhism from a foreign 
source was largely influenced by the science of astronomy, in 
which the Chaldeans and Egyptians were remarkably advanced 
as early as 4000 years before the Christian era. 

To a sun-myth is probably due the representation of an 
embroidered ball under the paw of the male Lamaist lion in 
the temple-door monuments. This lion-and-embroidered- 
ball (" Shih-tzu Kun Hsiu Chiu ") design is the commonest 
motif in Chinese art and, as illustrating the triumph of wit 
over brute force, supplies one of the most frequently used 
proverbs in the language. Ancient pictures of tribute em- 
bassies almost invariably show the King of Beasts tamely 
following an embroidered ball. 

It may be recalled that each of the Swedish heraldic lions 
rests a forepaw upon a globe, and the lion of St. Mark rests 
its right paw upon a copy of the Gospel. There are two lion 
116 




BUDDHIST LION-MASQUE, PEKING, I914 




BUDDHIST LION-MASQUE, PEKING, I914 



To facs p. 11^ 




JAPANESE LION MASQUE PLAYERS IN PORCELAIN 



To face p. ii6 



SYMBOLISM— BUDDHIST AND LAMAIST LION 

gods in the ancient Egyptian ritual. They support the sun 
and are attached to the limits of heaven, the extreme bounds 
of the sun's journeys.* The ancient Egyptian gods, " Shu 
with his sister Tefnut," are types of the dual lion. They are 
the servants of the sun-god. The one lion is a god of the 
Southern heaven and the horizon of the West supporting the 
sun as it sinks, the other of the northern heaven and the 
horizon of the East pushing forward the sun as it rises." * 
It is interesting to note that the lions before Buddhist door- 
ways are almost invariably ranged east and west — east to 
typify the Yang or male influence, and west to characterize 
the Yin or female influence. 

In Japanese astronomy the Chinese lion symbol occurs as 
the eleventh of the twelve celestial signs. It is also commonly 
found in Japanese art. The Japanese, however, refer to this 
sign as that of the dog. This error appears to be due to a 
curious misunderstanding of Foist lore on the part of the 
Japanese Buddhists, who derived their religion from China 
through Corea. This may perhaps be an instance of the 
Egyptian influence which favoured dog-worship and appears 
to have had no small importance in Japanese sun-worship 
in Shintoism. The Chinese gave the dog no place 
among the twelve celestial signs, but at a date which must 
have been posterior to the introduction of Buddhism did 
give a place to the lion, which, of course, only became 
known to them with Buddhism. f The Japanese appear to 
have mistaken the fanciful Chinese Foist representations of 
the lion for dogs, calling them the " dogs of Fo." They 
adopted the same forms, the pair Koma Inu (Dog of Corea) 
and Ama Inu (heavenly dog), practically identical in shape 

* " Book of the Beginnings," G. Massey. 

t Except perhaps in art of the Han period. See Laufer's " Chinese Pottery of the 
Han Dynasty," p. 242. 

117 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

with the Chinese lions, but without the attributes introduced 
into China by the Lamaists. Such lion-guardians protect the 
entrance to the tomb of Tokugawa lyesasu, who died in 
A.D. 1604, at Nikko. These guardians are commonly found 
in Japan as in China at the entrances to temples (miya). 
Another instance of error in knowledge of Chinese Buddhist 
art in Japan is the illustrating and describing of a Chinese 
lion as a kylin by Kaempfer, who derived his information 
from a well-educated Japanese. The Shinto priests, too, 
have lion-images in their temples, though these are clearly 
Buddhist. 

The throne of the Dalai Lama at Lhasa is supported by 
carved lions.* Similarly lions are found at the foot of the 
Japanese Imperial throne, serving as supports to the golden 
chair upon which the Mikado sits. They sit upright upon 
their haunches with straight forelegs. Their mouths are 
gaping, their mane is curled in tufts, their tails are bifurcated, 
and according to GrifRs they are called " Corean dogs." 
Griffis thinks that they may here typify the vassalage of 
Corea, said to have been conquered by the Empress Jingu. 
-^She called the King of Shinra " the dog of Japan." f 

The lioness on the western side of the Chinese doorway has 
her left paw resting upon an upturned lion-cub, and her 
claws are in its mouth. The whelp is supposed to be sucking 
milk through the claws, for the old Chinese belief is that the 
lioness secretes milk in her pads. 

These legends may be compared with the old European 
superstition linked in mediaeval times with Christianity, that 
the lion-whelp was born dead, and brought to life on the 
third day by being breathed on by its father. 

These two Chinese superstitions are no doubt due to 

• " Thibet the Mysterious," by Sir Thomas Holdich, p. 318. 
t Griffis, " Corea the Hermit Nation," p. 52. 

118 




BUDDHIST LION-MASQUE, PEKING, I9T4 



To face p. 118 



SYMBOLISM— BUDDHIST AND LAMAIST LION 

Lamaism, for the Scriptures read : " When a man wishes to 
obtain the milk of lions, he first makes an embroidered ball 
of many colours and places this upon their path. Upon 
seeing it the lions are attracted. Having played with it for 
a long time the ball is soaked with milk. Thus may man 
obtain its milk from the ball. Thence comes the saying of 
the ancients that man is the wisest of all living beings. This 
is the very truth." * 

To the Chinese, Corea, possibly on account of its being 
almost surrounded by the sea, is even more the home of the 
ethereal lion than is Tibet. One of the earliest of Chinese 
myths credits the sea with being the home of dragons. In 
modern Chinese fable the dragon has nine children, of which V 
the lion is one. The Coreans turned this belief to great , 
profit up to recent years by stimulating the Chinese faith in 
the great efficacy of the " Corean purify heart pill " — a 
nostrum which, considered to be extraordinarily powerful as 
a sedative for fever, recently shared with ginseng root the 
wide reputation which caused its market value to be its 
weight in gold. The pill was said to contain a large propor- 
tion of lion's milk collected, in the manner indicated by the 
Tibetan biblical legend, from cotton and cloth balls exposed 
by night at the ends of the flag-poles of Buddhist temples, 
and particularly accessible to the numerous lion-spirits 
frequenting Corea on account of its proximity to the sea. 
Since the abolition of the Corean embassies to Peking and 
the annexation of the Hermit Kingdom by Japan, the sale of 
this old-world nostrum has greatly diminished. 

Among the patrons of early Northern Buddhism were the 
Scythians and Indo-Persians, a race of sun-worshippers. The 
placing of a whelp beneath the paw of the western, or female, 
lion outside Chinese temples may also be connected with 

* P'a Erh Ch'in Gospel. 

119 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

sun-worship. The ancient Egyptian sacred year began with 
the sun in the sign of Leo, constituted by two lions and a 
whelp. It may be recalled, as mentioned earlier, that " the 
young lion and an old lion that couched " were the twin-lion 
blazon of Judah. It is interesting to note that the Chinese 
lions were frequently represented as holding in their jaws a 
broad ribbon, often pictured as a piece of string or rope. 

In the Egyptian ritual the stars or planets are described as 
hauling the sun * along with ropes, and the balance of the 
equinox was ruled by the two lion-gods who pulled at the 
ropes of the scales .f Again, in Southern Pacific mythology 
— especially that of the Maori, which is startlingly similar in 
many respects to the Egyptian — the sun hauls the full moon 
up over the horizon by means of ropes. It is just possible 
that such ropes have some mythological connexion in an 
early conception common to these widely separated races. 
The existence of the old sun myth is further recalled by the 
frequent picturing of the stars on the head of the Lamaist 
lions. These are frequently found in potteries of the Ming 
period, and also in cloisonne incense-burners of the time of 
Ch'ien Lung. The Chinese have no constellation Leo. 
Similar stars are, in Scythic J art, found on the ibex and the 
horse and, in Assyria, upon lions. They much resemble the 
stars found upon Tibetan luck-flags, possibly pointing to the 
use of the objects as omens and charms. The practice of 
using miniature lions as charms is universal in China to this 
day. 

* Sun-dog. This name is not in use in China. A pair of lions, each with a ball 
beneath one of the fore-paws, is placed before many temples of the Shinto religion 
in Japan. The Shinto priests were originally worshippers of the sun. Their religion, 
like the sun-worship of the Egyptians, was much older than Buddhism, but in later 
periods the two neighbouring beliefs have mutually borrowed many attributes. It 
is possible that the Shinto association of lions with sun-worship may have led to the 
use of the term " sun-dog," current in Japan. 

t " Book of the Beginnings," G. Massey. | " Scythians and Greeks," Minns. 

1 20 




bronze incense-burner, sung period 
(author's collection) 






SILVER SNUFF BOTTLE 
(author's COLLECTION) 



PAIR OF IVORY OPIUM BOXES 
(author's COLLECTION) 




MINIATURE BRONZE LION AND A COREAN " PURIFY HEART PILL ' 

(lion's MILK PILL) 

RECENTLY PURCHASED IN PEKING 



Tofacept 120 



SYMBOLISM— BUDDHIST AND LAMAIST LION 

Another link in the evidence connecting the lion with sun- 
and fire-worship exists in the belief, current during the 
mediaeval period, that the lion was associated with fire and 
smoke. Consequently, a very large number of incense- 
burners fashioned in the shape of lions can be assigned to this 
period. These burners were usually hollow, the smoke being 
caused to issue from the lion's jaws. 

Among the early mediaeval Christians the lion sometimes 
was used to represent Christ Himself, The Buddhists 
actually borrowed from the lion and gave to Buddha certain 
leonine physical characteristics. Conversely, their spirit-lions 
in monuments were endowed with certain remarkable non- 
leonine characteristics which were derived from representa- 
tions of Buddha himself. Among these may be noted 
absence of the outward evidences of sex, domed head, curly 
tufts of hair on the head, and a long tongue. 

Among the thirty-two superior marks which distinguished 
Buddha from others of the human race were : 

(4) Between the eyebrows a little ball shining like silver 
or snow. 

(12) The tongue large and long, 

(13) The jaws those of a lion. 

(17) The skin having a tinge of gold colour. 

(19) The upper part of the body that of a Hon.* 

It is not surprising that in breeding dogs to resemble the 
Lamaist lion as closely as possible, Chinese breeders have 
encouraged the development of physical characteristics which 
in Buddhist lore" in some cases were common both to the 
lion and to Buddha himself. 

The Lamaists were so much at a loss to explain their lion's 
twisted curls that they invented a legend, now current, that 
Buddha remained so long in motionless contemplation that 

* " Buddhist Art in India," V. Burgess. 

121 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

the snails crawled over his head. Lamaism suggests that the 
lion had five large curls at the top of its head to simulate the 
flags worn in the ancient head-dress of high military officials. 
Buddha said : " Upon the lion's head are five hair-curls. 
The middle one is a general, and the others like unto his 
four flags. The nine hair-curls below are their support." 

On referring to Egyptian mythology, we find that the two 
lion-gods wore a special feather head-dress. Assyrian models, 
not later than the seventh century B.C., show a sheath-like 
head-dress which possibly began to be represented as curled 
at about the same time that the Buddhists, who originally 
represented Buddha with free-falling, waved hair, began to 
ascribe to their deity, as one of his superior marks, short and 
curly hair. 

Tufts of hair on the legs of Chinese lion-statues have been 
mentioned. The well-developed fringes on the legs of 
" Pekingese " dogs are comparable to them. The Assyrian 
lions were shaved when domesticated. Of the mane, only a 
frill or collar was left round the face ; on the body some 
tufts and bands of hair were left on the back, along the 
flanks, and behind the thighs. The tuft was left at the end 
of the tail.* 

• " The Book of the Lion," Sir A. Pease. 



122 




Pholo, Zuuibriim, Peking 
WEN SHU (MANJUSRI) BUDDHA RIDING ON A LION (hUANG SSU, NEAR PEKING). 

The Huang Ssu was built in I 647, by the Emperor Shun Chih. (This temple was 
recently destroyed by fire) 



To face p. 122 



CHAPTER VII 

HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO DOGS OF 
PEKINGESE TYPE 

IT has been suggested by some that the type of dog known 
among Europeans as the " Pekingese " has existed in 
China from a very early period as a distinct race 
having essentially the points now characterizing it. Others 
argue that it is only within the last two hundred years that 
the type closely resembling the modern " Pekingese " has 
been evolved. Study of such information as it has been 
possible to collect will leave a decision with the reader's own 
judgment. 

About 500 years B.C. it is recorded that dogs were used in 
the kingdom now represented by the Province of Shansi, for 
sporting purposes. Some of these were probably small dogs, 
for it is mentioned that after the day's sport one kind of dog 
followed its master's chariot, while " those having short 
mouths were carried in the carts." 

It was only at the end of the first century of our era that 
the Chinese books become a little more specific as to the 
nature of the dogs mentioned. They speak of some of them 
as being called by the name " Pai," which later Chinese 
authorities explain as referring to a very small " short- 
legged " and " short-headed " type of dog " which belongs 
under the table." The Chinese table of the period was low, 
and those round it sat on mats. 

It will be seen later that some ancestors at least of the 

123 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

modern " Pekingese " dog came from Europe. In evidence 
of the fact that communication with Europe existed at an 
early period it may here be mentioned that the name " China " 
is probably due to the country's becoming known to the 
Graeco-Roman world during the Ts'in Dynasty (255-206 B.C.) 
about the time of Ptolemy (247-222 B.C.). A little later silk 
was introduced into Rome and Greece by the northern 
overland route. This overland caravan route became 
thoroughly established during the Han Dynasty, a hundred 
years before the Christian era. The profusion of silks which 
were worn by the wealthy Romans all came from the looms 
of Han in exchange for the products of the West, chiefly 
glass, steel, pottery, elephants, horses, and most probably, in 
view of the custom of including them as objects of exchange 
between states even at this early period, the pet dogs for 
which the Eastern Roman Empire and Greece were famous. 

With the death of Ling Ti the Eastern Han Kingdom, 
which constituted China, broke up into three parts. These 
united for a short period only to be split into sixteen minor 
kingdoms which waged war among themselves for a period 
lasting roughly from a.d. 300-400. No less than six dynasties 
rose and fell before Buddhism introduced into China at the 
beginning of the first century B.C., became the dominating 
religion. 

" By the year 420 of our era a decisive change was wrought 
for China, full of the most important consequences for the 
future of her literature and art ; and that was a clear division 
of the groups of Chinese states into North and South 
Dynasties — the whole north, the ancestral seats, being taken 
over by Tartar conquerors. 

The Emperors of pure Chinese stock now moved their 
capital down to the lately civilized south. This separation, 
with relatively long intervals of peace between the two 
T24 



HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO PEKINGESE TYPE 

sections, lasted nearly two centuries, down to a.d. 589-605, 
when the reunion of China was cemented under Yang Ti. 
In these two full centuries Chinese culture, including poetry 
and art, was entirely recreated." * 

After the almost simultaneous blotting out of the Roman 
and Han Empires, the Tartars and Huns largely blocked the 
trade-route and cut off peaceful traffic to a period as late as 
the middle of the fifth century of our era. Communications 
then for a second time became possible up to the end of the 
T'ang Dynasty (a.d. 907), when they were again disjointed 
by the spread of Islam, which no doubt interfered with 
ambassadorial and trading missions to China, but did not 
necessarily completely interrupt exchange of dogs. Islam, it 
is true, classes dogs as unclean, but Katmir, the watchdog, 
was admitted to heaven by Mohammed for guarding the 
Seven Sleepers. The Turks were not averse to presents of 
rare canine specimens. In the seventeenth century they 
succoured starving dogs and used dogs for hunting. The 
women, too, prized and reared Maltese dogs. The Venetian 
Ambassador in Constantinople wrote to the Doge and Senate 
in 1583 that the Ambassador of Queen Elizabeth of England, 
" in spite of all the opposition offered to him by the French 
Ambassador, has this morning kissed the Sultan's hands. He 
has presented His Majesty with a most beautiful watch set 
with jewels and pearls, two pretty lap-dogs, thirteen pieces 
of silver gilt. . . ." f In 1594 he wrote that " two great 
sporting dogs " were requested of the Venetian Government 
in the Sultan's name. The Doge and Senate appear to have 
had difficulty in satisfying the Sultan, for in 1607 the Venetian 
Ambassador at the English Court wrote that he would 
execute the order of His Serenity the Doge to buy *' two big 



* FenoUosa, " Epochs in Chinese and Japanese Art," vol. i, p. 35. 
f " Calendar of State Papers. Venice." 



125 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

fierce dogs " to be sent to Constantinople as a present from 
the Venetian Government to the Turk. He sent them 
in 1609. 

Against the Emperor Kao Wei, of the Northern Chi 
Dynasty, who reigned 565-577, and with Ling Ti and a few 
others known to the Chinese as the Madcap Monarchs, it is 
recorded : 

" In 565 A.D. the Emperor gave the name of Ch'ih Hu or 
' red tiger ' to a certain Persian dog. He also gave it the 
rank and privileges of Chun Chun (closely allied to those of 
a duke). The dog was fed with the choicest meat and rice. 
It was granted the revenue of a Prefecture. When the 
Emperor was mounted the dog rode upon a mat placed in 
front of the saddle." * 

The Persian dog referred to must have been small to have 
been able to ride on a mat in front of its master's saddle. 
The others were very possibly sporting dogs, for it must be 
remembered that this monarch's inordinate love of the chase 
lost him both his kingdom and his life. It happened in 
this way : 

" The Emperor, accompanied by a favourite concubine, left 
Ping Yang for Hsinchow in Shansi on a hunting expedition. 
During his absence, troops from Peichow attacked Ping Yang. 
Three successive messengers were sent in hot haste to ask 
for reinforcements, but the Secretary of State reproved them 
all for wishing to interrupt the monarch's sport. The 
Emperor was hunting one evening, and had just killed when 
a fourth messenger brought him the news that Ping Yang 
had fallen. Kao Wei was then minded to go back imme- 
diately, but his concubine successfully implored him to make 
one more drive. Upon his return he collected a great army, 
surrounded Ping Yang and endeavoured, by day and by 

* San Kuo Tien Lueh of the T'ang Dynasty. 
126 



FROM AN IMPERIAL DOG SCROLL 

PAINTED BY MIAO SU-CHIUN, INSTRUCTRESS IN PAINTING TO THE LATE EMPRESS 
DOWAGER, DATED SEPTEMBER 189O 

2 3 A. ^ 





NO. I. LI-EEH (pear). LONG-COATED HAH-PAH 

DOG. 

Length of Body, I ft. 5 in. Heigtit 8 in. 

Sent from Tliibjt as a present to the 'Emperor. Its 

temperament is that of a human being 
NO. 3 SHIH-LIU (pomegranate). LO-SZE DOG. 

Length of Body 1 ft. 5 in. Height 8.5 in. 



NO. 3. CHIEH-TZU (lucky). LO-SZE DOG. 

Length of Body I ft. 3 in. Height 6.8 in. 
NO. 4. HSIANG-ERH (fragrant). HAH-PAH DOG. 

Length of Body I ft. 6 in. Height 7.5 in. 
NO 5. TA-TZU (MONGOL). TIGER-HEAD LO-SZE DOG. 

Height of Body I ft. 7 in. Height 8 in. 




NO. 6. PAO-ERH (precious). LO-SZE DOG. 
Length of Body > ft. 4 in. Height 6.5 in. 

NO. 7. CH'oD-ERH (smell) HAH-PAH DOG. 
Length of Body I ft. 7 in. Height 6.7 in. 



it 



NO. 8. HSING-ERH (apricot), HAH-PAH DOG. 
Length of Body 1 ft. 6 in. " Mother cross-bred.' 

NO. g. MO-HAi (inkstand) lo-sze dog, 

NO. 10, P'iNG-ERH (bottle) HAH-PAH DOG. 

Length of Body I ft. 8.5 in. Height 3,5 in. 




NO, I 



II, T'aO-ERH (PEACH). STRIPED LO-SZE DOG. NO. 12. YCI-TING (jADE BUTTON). HAH-PAH DOG 
Length of Body ( ft. 6 in. Height 7.9 in. Length of body ( ft. 5 in. Hei>.ht 8 in. 



Come from Heilingkiang. 



To face p, 126 



HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO PEKINGESE TYPE 

night, to storm it. His soldiers tunnelled beneath the walls 
of the city and a part of it fell to the ground, leaving a great 
breach easy to be stormed. The Imperial officers urged a 
general assault, but the Emperor ordered them to wait for 
the arrival of his favourite. The preparation of her toilet, 
however, caused such delay that the defenders were enabled 
to barricade the breach with beams. A few days later the 
Emperor, accompanied by this concubine and his ministers, 
was watching a minor engagement, which finally turned 
against his troops, with the result that the lady, being stricken 
with panic, counselled flight. Her fears communicated them- 
selves to the ministers and also to the monarch himself. 
Notwithstanding his great superiority of troops, the Emperor 
fled — first to Taiyuenfu and then to his capital, Changtefu. 
These in turn fell into the hands of the pursuing enemy, and, 
fleeing towards the Province of Shantung, the defeated 
Emperor was caught half way. Finally, together with his 
concubine, he was executed." * 
References to pet dogs are numerous in the T'ang history : 
" The Emperor of the Turkoman country visited the 
Honan Emperor in 609 and accompanied the Emperor Yang 
Ti on an expedition to Korea. He married a Chinese princess 
on his return. His successor sent an envoy with two dogs, 
one male and one female, to the Emperor Kou Tzu (618-629). 
Their height was about 6 tsun (inches), and their length i ch'ih 
(foot) and a little. f These dogs were of great intelligence. 
They could lead horses by the reins, and each was trained to 
light its master's path at night by carrying a torch in its mouth. 
These dogs were born in the Fu Lin country." J 

• Yu P'i T'ung Chien. 

•j- This was probably the Chinese builder's scale. On this scale one Chinese foot 
of 10 Chinese inches is equal to 12J British inches. These dogs were therefore 
7 J inches high and i2| inches long. 

X T'ung K'ao, by Ma Tuan Lin (lived about a.d. 960, in Sung Dynasty), and 
T'ung Tien by Tu Yo. 

137 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

The name Fu Lin, also read Fo Lin, may or may not be 
the Chinese transliteration of «? rhv voXiv^ said to be the 
origin of the name Stambul, but these dogs certainly came 
from the West, and there is little doubt that Byzantium, now 
Constantinople, the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire, 
was designated by the word.* 

The last distinct record of a communication from the 
Byzantine Empire is found in a.d. 1371 under the Emperor 
Hung Wu. It is interesting to note that by this time the 
Chinese capital was definitely fixed at Peking, but that up 
to the middle of the seventeenth century the Chinese literati 
continued to call the small Imperial dogs by the generic 
name of " Dogs of Fu Lin." Modern research has shown 
that the silk trade between the Eastern Roman or Byzantine 
Empire and China was considered to be of very considerable 
importance by the Courts of both China and the West, as 
well as by the Turks and other fluctuating peoples through 
whose country the trade passed. In 719 there arrived in 
China an embassy from Fu Lin bringing lions and spiral- 
horned sheep. The Byzantine Emperor at this time was 
Leo the Isaurian. There are definite records of at least 
seven direct embassies from Fu Lin to China between the 
years a.d. 600 and 1400. Seeing that the powerful T'ang 
monarchs, whose empire in the case of T'ai Tsung stretched 
westward to the Caspian, displayed great interest in the Fu 
Lin breed of dogs, it would not be surprising if later research 
were to demonstrate that numerous specimens of the breed 
were imported to Hsianfu, the T'ang capital, direct from 
Byzantium. 

The success of the Mohammedans interfered with, and 
possibly put an end to the Byzantine trade which had been 

• " Cathay and the Way Thither," Yule, vol. i, p. 44 ; and Bushell, " Chinese Art," 
P-73- 
128 




SIGNED : " RESPECTFULLY PRESENTED. LENG MEI. 
CAREFULLY PAINTED." k'aNG HSU PERIOD 

(author's collection) 



To face p. 128 



HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO PEKINGESE TYPE 

carried on for a long period over a land route, through 
deserts and over mountains, requiring a journey of two years 
through the heart of Asia. Silk and other valuable mer- 
chandise may have filtered through after the Arab conquests, 
but as the canine race is unclean to the Mohammedan, it 
appears less likely that dogs were sent as presents to China 
from Fu Lin after its capture by the Arabs. 

The fact that shortness of nose is not recorded as a special 
characteristic of these dogs appears to indicate that they were 
remarkable for their small size and intelligence rather than 
for other special characteristics. Early writers refer to the 
remarkable small Maltese pet dogs from Zapuntello and 
Malta as being an article of export throughout the Near 
East. This fact makes it more than possible that Fu Lin 
dogs were of the " Maltese " race, but whether, in these early 
days, there were two or three varieties as described in 
A.D. 1755, " short-haired or long-haired or maned," * and 
" in size resemblijng the ordinary weasel," is of course 
unknown. 

Comparison of the Japanese and Pekingese races at early 
periods should throw light upon the nature of the small dogs 
of the time, for, if both the modern " Pekingese " and 
" Japanese " dogs are derived from the same ancestral stock 
of this period, and if there has been little subsequent crossing 
of the breeds, their ancestor must then have closely resembled 
these two present-day races. 

We now reach one of the most famous references to small 
dogs in Chinese history. It is recorded that the Emperor 
Ming of the T'ang Dynasty, who ruled from a.d. 713-755, 
had a favourite wife named Yang Kwei Fei, whose beauty is 
historic. It happened one day that the Emperor was playing 

* Johnston's " il^lian " ; " Toy Dogs and their Ancestors," by the Hon. Mrs. Neville 
Lytton, p. 30. 

I ^ 129 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

at chess with a certain prince. Perceiving that her Imperial 
master was certain to suffer the indignity of defeat, his wife, 
who was an interested spectator, contrived to loose her pet 
dog upon the board, so that the pieces were upset and the 
game ruined, to the great delight of the Emperor. This dog 
was white * in colour, and was named " Wo " (pronounced 
Waugh). It came from the K'ang country, one of the nine 
kingdoms founded by the Emperor Wen in the Pamirs .f 

Possibly the famous poet Yuan Wei Ch'ih of this period 
was referring to this dog when he wrote the couplet quoted 
in K'ang Hsi's dictionary : 

How fierce is proud Wo, 
Though still in his slumbers. 

The Emperor K'ang Hsi's dictionary refers to the character 
" Wo," and states that this name was applied to a race of 
small dogs. The name was probably in general use towards 
the close of the T'ang Dynasty. 
The first occasion on which the Ssuchuan " pai " J pro- 

* Stated to have been white in one only of many references. 

t " Kuang Shih Lai Fu," by Ho Hsi Min. 

j Bai Dog. The oldest generic name for small dogs is " pai," pronounced in the 
ancient dialect of Shansi approximately " bye." It is recorded from the Han 
dynasty, 100-200 B.C. The mongol name for pet dogs is No-hai. The Thibetan is 
Chi-choong. 

The famous dictionary compiled under the Emperor K'ang Hsi (a.d. 1662-1723) 
quotes two old encyclopaedias as considering the word " pai " to refer to : 

(i) A dog with short legs. Quotation from the " Shuo Wen." Han Dynasty. About 

A.D. 150. 

(2) A dog with a short head. Quotation from the " Kwang Yun," Sung Dynasty. 
About A.D. 1000. This authority states that the above character was also pro- 
nounced " p'ai " — pronounced pie in English. 

(3) An under-table dog. " Kwang Yun," Sung Dynasty, ad. iooo. This 
authority also states that " bai " refers to a " short-headed " dog. 

High tables have been used in China for about 1000 years only. This quotation 
makes reference to small tables similar to those whose use survives in Japan to the 
present day, so that the writers may be taken to mean that " bai " refers to a race of 
small dogs which were generally short-legged as well as " short-headed." 

It will therefore be noted that the character referred to a short-legged dog from, at 

130 



HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO PEKINGESE TYPE 

nounced " bai ") dog, which became commonly known as 
the " Lo-Chiang " dog, is mentioned in Chinese literature is 
that on which the Hsin Lo State of Korea sent as tribute to 
Japan in a.d. 732, " one parrot, one thrush, one Ssuchuan 
' pai ' dog, one hunting dog," and other animals.* Lo-chiang 
(or Lo-kiang) is a sub -prefecture in Nienchow, about thirty 
miles north of Chengtu, the provincial capital of Ssuchuan. 

The Lo-chiang dog appears to have remained in fashion for 
three centuries, and one became very famous under the Sung 
Dynasty. 

" In the reign of Hsi Tsoong (874-889) of the T'ang 
Dynasty, a member of the Council of State named Wang 
To owned a very " short- legged " (p'ei-chiao) dog named 
Hua-ya (flowery duck). One night an assassin broke into 
his house through the roof, but, being discovered by the dog, 
was frustrated." f 

This reference marks the break-up of the T'ang Dynasty, 

latest, A.D. 150; from about a.d. iooo, at latest, it certainly referred to "short- 
headed," " short-legged," " under-table," small dogs which may have been of 
different breeds. 

The commonest generic name found in Chinese writings is " the dogs of Fu Lin." 
It appears certain, however, that though this name persisted as a classical term used 
by scholars up to the beginning of the Manchu Dynasty, it has long ceased to be the 
common spoken name. The name may even have been purely literary, and never 
used outside the writings of the scholars. Chinese who are interested in pet dogs 
now always use the term " ba-erh " dog, and less commonly " hah-bah " dog as the 
generic term. When using the colloquial term Chinese writers appear to have 
endeavoured rather to represent the sounds for the common names in use, than to 
establish a fixed generic character. 

It seems probable that the old " bai-rh " survives in the present word " bah-rh." 
It may be noted here that generic names are usually monosyllabic among the Chinese, 
and would naturally tend to remain so. Any lengthening of the name would be likely 
to have a descriptive or qualificative meaning. The Chinese written character repre- 
senting the sound would very naturally vary because the Chinese have never given 
to the canine race the importance with which it is regarded by the European. Con- 
sequently the references in Chinese literature to the " bah-rh " dog(which was written 
by the scholars " Fu-Lin dog ") were probably so rare that a writer would invent a 
character for the latter name. 

* " Hsii Jih-pen Chi." 

f " Yuan Chien Lei Han." 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

the second in Chinese history of the five periods of peace 
which allowed literature and art to flourish. For half a 
century the country was torn by internal strife, which resulted 
in the establishment of five successive dynasties, each lasting 
for not more than ten years, and each ready, if occasion 
offered, to change its capital city from Hsianfu, the T'ang 
metropolis. In 969 these warring dynasties gave place to 
the great Sung Dynasty, which, for nearly two hundred 
years, ruled in peace in both North and South China, 
and still continued to rule for another hundred vears, at 
its Hangchow capital in South China, while desperately 
fighting in the North with the Mongols, who finally over- 
threw it. 

" About the year a.d. 990 an official in Ssuchuan gave the 
Emperor T'ai Tsung of the Sung Dynasty a Lo-chiang dog 
named T'ao Hua (peach flower) from Ho-chow (about fifty 
miles north of Chungking). It was extremely small and very 
intelligent. It followed the Emperor everywhere. When 
there was an audience the dog preceded him, and by its bark 
announced its Imperial master's arrival. When the Emperor 
T'ai Tsung was ill it refused to eat. When the Emperor died 
the dog manifested its sorrow with tears and whining. The 
palace eunuchs endeavoured to train the dog to precede the 
new Emperor, but without success. The Emperor caused to 
be made an iron cage with white cushions in sign of mourning, 
and this, containing the dog, was carried in the Imperial 
chair to his master's tomb. There the dog died, and the 
Emperor Chen Tsung (a faithful disciple true to the Con- 
fucian doctrine) issued a decree ordering it to be wrapped in 
the cloth of an Imperial umbrella and buried alongside of its 
master." * 

The historical record from which this reference is taken 

* " Yuan Chien Lei Han," vol. cxxxvi. 
132 




SHORT-COATED " PEKINGESE." MODERN 




BACK OF CHINESE HAND-MIRROR. TAG KUANG 
PERIOD (about 1850). PAINTED ON SILK 



To face p, 132 



HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO PEKINGESE TYPE 

proceeds to quote in honour of this dog two long odes 
written by Li Chih, a famous poet of the period. 

About the year a.d. 1041, in the reign of the Emperor Ren 
Tsung of the same dynasty, the soldiers in the Imperial 
palace became mutinous. The Emperor, who was in one of 
the houses of the palace, was much frightened by the uproar. 
A certain censor, perhaps remembering the story of T'ai 
Tsung's dog, memorialized him as follows : "In Ssuchuan 
there is a place named Lo-chiang famous for its dogs. Search 
should be made for one of these having a red coat and a 
short tail. Such as these are very quick of ear and should be 
bred in the palace so as to give early warning of trouble 
outside." The enemies of this censor, whose name was 
Sung, nicknamed him " Sung Lo-chiang " for having given 
the Emperor this advice.* 

No special breed of small dogs has existed at Lo-chiang in 
modern times, and the present customary name for small pet 
dogs in Ssuchuan is said to be " Peking " dog. In view of 
the fact that -sze is a common suffix to Ssuchuan place-names, 
it appears possible that an old name, Lo-chiang-sze, has been 
contracted into Lo-sze, which is the common name in Peking 
for the short-haired pug breed. It therefore appears possible 
that the Lo-chiang dog, so famous in Chinese history, was in 
reality practically identical with the English pug, which is 
known to be descended from Chinese ancestors. 

History records that the Emperor K'ang Hsi's study at 
Peking was ornamented by three pictures catalogued as 
" Rocks, cat and dog," " Dogs in play," " Cats and dogs." 
Apparently these represented small pet dogs, possibly of 
the Lo-chiang breed, for the pictures were painted by a 
native of Ssuchuan, and almost certainly for an Emperor 

* " Yuan Chien Lei Han," vol. cxxxvi. The nickname cannot be accurately 
translated, but an approximate rendering may be " Pug-dog Sung." 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

reigning at Chengtu during the period of the five dynasties— 

907-960.* 

During the Yuan Dynasty (1206-1333), the Mongol Em- 
perors, following the example set them by Assyrian monarchs 
two thousand years previously, prided themselves on their 
menageries, and Marco Polo records that Uons roamed the 
courts of the Peking palace. 

" It was the custom of the Emperors on the days when 
they give feasts in honour of the Princes and High Officials 
to take out at the Ten Thousand Years' Hill (the Coal Hill) 
all the beasts— tigers, leopards, bears, elephants— parading 
them one by one before the guests. After these were brought 
the hons. These beasts are small and short in body. They 
are astonishingly like the ' golden-coated, nimble dogs ' 
which are commonly bred by people themselves in their own 
homes. All animals, when they see the lions, are terrified. 
Their anger is more fearsome than that of all other beasts." f 

It is just possible that some of these " golden-coated 
nimble dogs " were introduced into Europe during this 
period, for, during the latter part of the Yuan Dynasty, 
Chinese princes were received by the papal court at Rome, 
and Franciscan missionaries had established some forty 
bishoprics in the Celestial Kingdom. Marco Polo visited 
China, saw Hangchow, and left us the one account of 
mediaeval China that is at all trustworthy. Christianity had 
probably penetrated China at a much earlier period. Nes- 
torian bishops are known to have been appointed in the first 
quarter of the eighth century. t 

A further reference to a " golden-coated " dog probably 
belongs to this period. A Chinese chronicler says : " There 

* " Pei Wai Chai Shu Hua P'u," vols, xcv-c. 

f " Jih Hsia Chiu Wen K'ao," Chuo Keng Lu. 

X " Cathay and the Way Thither," Yule, vol. i, p. 103, 



HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO PEKINGESE TYPE 

was a civilian named Shen Heng Chi who bred a ' Chin 
Ssu ' (lit. golden-silk) dog in his home. This dog was not 
more than one foot long, and was very intelligent. When 
guests were presented the dog lay beneath the table. After 
the dog had been reared for three years the owner fell ill. 
The dog in sympathy refused to eat. After a few days the 
master died. The dog showed signs of excessive grief when 
the corpse was put in the coffin. The coffin was kept in the 
home for one year, during which time the dog always lay 
beneath it. When the corpse was being removed for burial 
the dog beat its head with such violence against the coffin 
that it died." 

After the overthrow of the degenerate line of Kublai Khan 
in 1368, no European penetrated into China for nearly two 
hundred years. The cult of the race of pet dogs seems to 
have fluctuated with the interest taken in the breed by the 
Emperors. During the Ming Dynasty (i 368-1 628), there is 
no mention of kennels in the list of Imperial stables, etc., and 
it seems probable that pet dogs were altogether out of fashion. 
The Sons of Heaven appear to have interested themselves 
specially in cat-breeding, a hobby against which, in England, 
there was a prejudice during the Middle Ages, as cats were 
associated in the popular imagination with witchery and 
other diabolical agencies. Some of the Chinese Emperors 
carried their enthusiasm for cats to remarkable excess, for 
the eunuch Liu Jou Yii, writing his reminiscences under the 
last three Mings, puts on record that " There are three or 
four men, body-servants of the Emperor, whose special 
business is the feeding of those cats which have official rank 
or are famous. Upon all of these cats the Emperors have 
bestowed their affections one above the other. Awaiting the 
Emperor's grant of names and official rank ordinary male 
cats are called pages, while emasculated cats are called ' old 

13s 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

father,' the analogue for the female being ' old maid.' The 
pay given to the eunuchs for upkeep of each cat is according 
to its rank. So noisy are the cats that all the Emperor's sons 
and daughters at childhood are continually brought to sick- 
ness, even unto death ; and who is there that dares to com- 
plain ? If there had been some places near the dweUing-house 
in w^hich the cats could have been confined it would have 
been a good thing. We have heard that, because their sons 
and grandsons grew up in the palace under nurses, and 
loving only one wife, do not realize the importance of the 
rearing of children and of obtaining sons, the Imperial ances- 
tors bred cats and pigeons. Over the doors also they hung 
snake characters, pictures of looo boys and the hundred sons, so 
that when the Emperor should see the inscriptions and the rear- 
ing of the cats and pigeons there might be brought to his atten- 
tion the importance of the rearing of numerous children." * 

Dr. Macgowan, arguing from the facts that cats are not 
included among the six domestic animals recorded by the 
early Chinese nor among the zodiacal constellations, suggests 
that the cat was domesticated at a late period in China. 
Yuen-chuang, the pilgrim monk who in the seventh century 
A.D. returned after sixteen years' wandering in India, brought 
cats with him to protect his collection of Sanskrit Buddhist 
books from rat-gnawing. That account, supposedly of the first 
introduction of cats, is, however, somewhat undermined by the 
following anecdote of Confucius : " Tseng ShenandMinTzu, 
canonized disciples of the Sage, were listening outside to the 
music of the Master, who, as was his wont, was soothing 
himself by the lute that he loved so well, when suddenly the 
strain was changed. On entering and inquiring what the 
change meant they were told by Confucius that he had 
seen a cat making for a rat, and that he had struck up 

* Ming Kung Shih, " Palace Affairs of the Ming Dynasty," vol. ii. 
136 



HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO PEKINGESE TYPE 

another tune to stimulate the cat in its attack upon the 
rodent." * 

These conflicting statements are from authoritative sources, 
and it is impossible to offer a satisfactory explanation, 
remarks Macgowan. He holds that the cat was brought to 
East Asia from the West. The animal is named but twice 
in all the long periods of early Chinese history, and as a 
domesticated animal only once. Possibly the cat of Con- 
fucian times was a wild cat only partially domesticated. 

Cats appear to have continued to be the favourite pets of 
the Chinese court ladies to the end of the Ming period, but 
soon perhaps gave place to the small breeds of dogs. In 
1655, soon after passing Lin-ching on the Grand Canal, 
John Nieuhoff wrote : 

" In this Province [about Peking] are white rough cats, not 
unlike the Malteeza Dogs, with long ears, which are there 
the ladies' joysting hounds or play-fellows ; they will catch 
no mice, being too much made of." f 

Linchinchow is still well-known in China for its white cats 
having eyes of different colours. It may have been the home 
of the " white cat of a rare species brought from Asia, whose 
eyes were of different colours, the right yellow as a topaz, the 
left blue as sapphire," which was provided by Leonardo da 
Vinci for the amusement of Monna Lisa del Gioconda when 
painting her portrait, 1 503-1 506. J 

Athanasius Kircher,§ when describing the custom of foot- 
binding among the Chinese ladies, is translated, " Others say 
that this co-ercitation was enacted by a law of the wise men 
that women may learn to sit at home, which if they do not 
voluntarily, they are by this means compelled. Their habit 

* " Cats," China Br. R.A.S., 1891, p. 128. 

t John Ogilby's " Embassy from the East India Company/' p. 105, 1669. 

X " Roman de Leonard de Vinci," J. Sorreze. 

§ John Ogilby's " Embassy from the East India Company," p. 70. 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

is modest and full of gravity, being veiled so that no part is 
naked except the face : they adorn their heads, especially 
the more noble sort (and those that live at Court) vs^ith divers 
w^reaths and fillets beset with precious stones, which add a 
wonderful splendour. Their vests interwoven with flowers, 
birds, and the like ornaments, trail at their feet, but yet so 
that what they esteem their chief beauty is not obscured, and 
to pass away their time, they sport with little dogs,* birds, 
and such delights." 

The breeding of dogs within the precincts of the Imperial 
Ancestral Temple was prohibited. Under the Emperor Wan 
Li (i 563-1620), in spite of this prohibition, a certain eunuch 
named Tu secretly kept a small hai-bah f or hsieh-bah 

• The French version reads " cats.' 

f Hai-Bah {or Ai-Bah) Dog. The name " bai " is found lengthened by either of the 
three characters " ai," " hai," or " hah." Of these " ai " ind " hai " appear first in 
the Ming period, during which the generic name was " hai-pah " or " ai-pah." The 
character used for " ai " means " short." That for " hai " in the Ming word " hai- 
pah " dog was either a character meaning " sea " — all lions and mjrthical monsters 
are even now considered by superstitious Chinese to belong to the sea — or one 
meaning " unicorn," an animal often confounded with the Buddhist lion. The 
dragon-world underneath the sea is part of primitive Chinese mjfthology, and the 
Chinese spirit-lion was classed as one of the fabled nine dragon children. The lion- 
unicorn or " hsieh-chai " is found embroidered on the robes of censors and judges, and 
indicates the fifth grade of official rank. The " hsieh-chai " is also found, but very rarely, 
in place of the lions outside a Buddhist temple. In Shantung the name for the small 
faience dogs (the origin of which is anterior to the introduction of Buddhism into 
China) which guard the corners of all important roofs against fire, is " hai-bah " dog 
— literally " sea small dogs." 

The term " hah-bah " dog does not appear previous to the Ching or Manchu 
Dynasty. The Manchu name for the small dog species is " Kha-per-i," pronounced 
ha-per-i. Laufer considers the term " hah-pah " to be of Turkish origin. It seems 
not unlikely that the Manchu influence has brought about the use of a word con- 
founding ha-per-i and hai-bah-rh, and modifying each to the name " hah-bah-rh " 
which means, in colloquial Peking dialect, " to limp, to roll in the walk." This word 
would, to the uneducated Chinese, have some sort of meaning applicable to the 
slightly rolling gait encouraged in the Pekingese breed, while the word " hai-bah " or 
" Kha-per-i " would convey little, or no meaning whatsoever. 

There appears to be little doubt, although there are no written records on the 
point, that the commonest vernacular name in the Tao Kuang period was " bah-rh," 
dog. This appears certain from the testimony of living vdtnesses and from the 

138 



HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO PEKINGESE TYPE 

[lit. " unicorn " — '* scratch " or *' scramble "] dog to which 
he was attached. This came to the knowledge of a certain 
chief eunuch of the Board of Punishments well-known for 
his relentless severity. He threatened to inform the Emperor 
of this crime, but was dissuaded by a douceur of something 
over 1000 taels in silver. 

It was during the Ming period that modern European 
traders first entered into trade relations with the Chinese 
Empire — the Portuguese in 1516, the Spanish from the 
Philippines in 1575, the Dutch in 1604, and the English in 
the dying days of the dynasty in 1637 ; the Portuguese 
traded solely at Canton, the Spanish permitted the Chinese 
to trade with them at Manila, and the Dutch and English 
traded at first at Amoy and in Formosa. 

From as early as the Sung Dynasty direct foreign trade 
with the Chinese capitals had been but slight. Merchant 
caravans from the seven or eight kingdoms on the western 
frontier of China were allowed in under pretence of being 
ambassadors bearing tribute to the Chinese Emperors. They 
brought public letters forged in the names of the sovereigns 
they professed to represent, with jade, diamonds and similar 
merchandise suitable for such arduous overland transport. 
In exchange they received lavish entertainment and presents 
far exceeding the value of their own. The Jesuit records of 

occurrence of eight dogs in certain illustrations of the breed — a pictorial pun on the 
Chinese word for " eight " which has the same sound, " bah-rh." 

The Chinese are so weak in exact definitions and scientific distinctions, that it is 
difficult to decide the question as to whether " bah-rh " or " hah-bah " has the wider 
significance at the present time. Both terms are commonly used in Peking to denote 
any small pet dog of any breed, Chinese or foreign ; but the Chinese readily use the 
words " Shih-ze " or " Lo-sze " as qualificative of the " ba-erh " dog, meaning " lion " 
or " pug " small dog ; yet they refuse similarly to qualify the " hah-bah " dog. This 
appears to indicate that the " bah-rh " dog is the broad stock from which the Chinese 
consider the lion dog and the pug dog to be minor offshoots, while the term " hah- 
bah " may be taken to comprise what is probably an amalgamation of several varieties, 
which were probably fairly distinct in the Tao Kuang period and are now roughly 
comprehended in the English breed named " Pekingese." 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

the early part of the seventeenth century refer to these sham 
embassies, and state that " the Chinese themselves are quite 
aware of the imposture, but they allow their Emperor to be 
befooled in this manner as if to persuade him that the whole 
world is tributary to the Chinese Empire." * 

There is said to be a record in the Peking palace archives 
to the effect that during the reign of K'ang Hsi (i 662-1 723) 
or Ch'ien Lung, a high official named Fu sent a " Chin Mao 
Shih Tzu " (golden-coated lion-dog) to the Emperor. Kircher, 
writing about 1667, figures the monarch of the " China- 
Tartarian Empire," who must have been K'ang Hsi, and a 
short-coated dog of spaniel size having a long nose and 
straight legs. The dog wears a collar with bells, and has a 
ring, with a bell attached, through its ear.f 

Forty-two years later Peter the Great sent an embassy to 
the court of the Emperor K'ang Hsi. It was received with 
greater honour than has been shown to any other embassy 
before or since. In its records we read that on its arrival, by 
the land route, at Peking an envoy was sent by the Chinese 
Emperor to welcome the Ambassador. " The aleggada 
remained for the space of three hours, talking on different 
subjects. The minister, it seems, was a great sportsman. 
He asked to see the ambassador's dogs, which were a few- 
greyhounds and some French buckhounds. He was desired 
to receive, in a present, any of them which pleased him best, 
but he would accept only a couple of greyhounds." 

November 29. " The ambassador at the same time delivered 
to the Mandarin, as a present from himself to the Emperor, 
several toys of value, a fine managed horse, some greyhounds 
and large buckhounds. 

" Everything was entered in a book very exactly, even the 

* " Cathay and the Way Thither," vol. iv, p. 243. 

t Figured in both John Ogilby's and the French translations. 

140 






porcelain dogs from peking. tao kuang period 
(author's collection) 




CHINESE PUG DOG, 
FROM AN IMPERIAL DOG BOOK 




SHEN CHUAN. BY HIGH OFFICIAL OF 

K'ANG HSI (early) PERIOD 

Posthumous name Wen Chuch Kung. His son 

^ras also a famous painter, and was born 1669, 

died 1735 




PORCELAIN DOGS FROM PEKING. TAO KUANG PERIOD 
(author's COLLECTION) 



To face p 146 



HISTORICAL REFERENCES TO PEKINGESE TYPE 

names and qualities of each particular dog. There was also 
tied about the neck of each dog a yellow silk cord drawn 
through a hole in a little bit of wood which hung from the 
dog's neck as a mark of its belonging to the court. The 
Chinese in general are very fond of little harlequin dogs that 
play monkey tricks. A servant of ours had one of that kind 
which he sold for an hundred ounces of silver." * 

K'ang Hsi allowed the Jesuit missionaries to build their 
cathedral near the palace in Peking, and this appears to be 
the most likely period for introduction of the Peking races of 
dogs to Europe from China or Japan, for specimens must 
have been procurable in the Chinese capital and provincial 
cities. 

In speaking of the local products in Peking, a book of the 
Ch'ien Lung period (1736-1796) says that the city is noted 
for its Persian cats, which are of great size, and for its Fu 
Ling dogs, which are extremely small .f Peking and the 
province of Chili did not cease to be famous for their cats 
with this period, for the Abbe Grosier states in 1819, " The 
cat, in China as in Europe, is the tender object of predilection 
and the favourite of the gentler sex. Those of the Province 
of Pechili have obtained preference over all their rivals by 
their pretty ways and by their fine coats. The Chinese 
ladies never allow them to leave their apartments, where the 
most delicate of nourishment and the tenderest of care are 
lavished upon them. These cats are of a pure white, their 
coat is very long, the hairs fine and silky. Their ears are 
pendent. They do not catch mice, and leave this ignoble 
chase to the cats of vulgar race with which, be it noted, China 
is abundantly supplied." J 

* Pinkerton's" Voyages," vol. vii, p. 381 ; Bell's " Travels in Asia " ; Ismayloff's 
" Embassy to Kamhi," 1719. 
t " Jih Hsia Chin Wen K'ao." 
i Grosier " De la Chine," vol. iv, p. 2 and 5. 

141 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

It seems probable that it was from the Ch'ien Lung period 
that the Chinese began to call these dogs " Peiching Kou " or 
" Pekingese " — a name which is now in common use through- 
out China. 

No " Pekingese " appear to have been mentioned or 
recorded by Lord Macartney's Embassy to Peking in 1792, 
and the first authentic importation into England took place 
in i860. None were shown until some years later. 

The official records of the later periods of the Ching or 
Manchu Dynasty have not yet been compiled and published, 
but it is probable that they will have nothing to say of the 
pigeons of the Emperor T'ao Kuang and of the dogs of his 
consort, matters well-known to modern hearsay, but not 
considered by modern Chinese historians to be of fitting 
importance for historical record. 



142 




PAINTED BY THE IMPERIAL BRUSH OF TZU HSI, EMPRESS DOWAGER^ 
IN THE NINTH YEAR OF T'UNG CHIH (1870) IN THE LAST TEN DAYS 

of the third month of spring " 
(author's collection) 

This picture bears the Imperial Seal and congratulatory verses by three high 

officials of the period 

Picture presented to Prince Wei by the late Hmpress Dowager 



To face p. i,]2 



CHAPTER VIII 

EVOLUTION OF THE PEKINGESE TYPE 

FANCIERS of the Pekingese breed of dogs, a breed 
which, to the eye of the present-day European, 
bears a closer resemblance than do the Chinese 
and the European lion-dog to the King of Beasts, will ask 
themselves such questions as : " How far back can the Pek- 
ingese type be traced ? What is the origin of the breed and 
of its distinctive points ? When was it first remarked as a 
distinct type by the Chinese ? What is the date of its first 
importation into Europe ? " 

Knowledge of the existence of " short " and " square " 
dogs a thousand or more years B.C. is scarcely evidence 
definite enough to justify a positive statement that small dogs 
existed in China at quite so remote a period. Use of the name 
" pai " for a " short-legged " and " short-headed " type of dog 
" which belongs under the table," at the end of the first 
century a.d. is, however, evidence which speaks for itself. 
That this type of dog was outdone by the dogs imported 
from " Fulin " or " Folin," in both superior intelligence and 
minuteness of size, appears perfectly clear from the en- 
thusiasm with which the arrival of these dogs, which were 
not unlikely of the then current Maltese breed, was welcomed. 
As regards the points of these dogs, Chinese writers of the 
T'ang Dynasty would probably have likened them to lions 
had there been a striking resemblance or if any of them had 
been particularly shaggy-coated, but they did not. No clear 

H3 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

similarity to lions is recorded before the time of Kublai 
Khan. The first Chinese mention of a " lion-dog " in 1371 
(Southern Sung Dynasty) probably dealt with the long- 
^^ coated variety almost invariably referred to by the Chinese 
when they use the term " shih-tzu," and was a dog of fair size, 
for it followed and attacked a murderer. 

As the Chinese Imperial breed has ancestors which came 
from Byzantium and were very possibly connected with the 
Maltese of the period, it is of interest to add a few notes 
summarizing what is known of that breed in Europe. 

On the final division of the Roman dominions in a.d. 395, 
Malta was assigned to the Empire of Constantinople. The 
Hon. Mrs. Lytton, in her book on " Toy Dogs and their 
Ancestors," points out that there were two " Melitas " (Malta 
and Zapuntello*) famous for their dogs among the ancients, 
and that they had two breeds, both small, one somewhat re- 
sembling the modern " Maltese " and the other " Pomeranian " 
in type. Without entering too deeply into the relationships 
of the old type of Maltese dogs, it is of interest to quote one or 
two references from The Hon. Mrs. Lytton's careful collec- 
tion. The dogs of Melita were very famous as pets, and were 
bred by the men and women of both Rome and Greece. 
There are numerous references to the breed, both in poetry 
and prose. Difficulties of transport and absence of shows, 
no doubt, caused the breeds to have considerably less type 
than modern breeds of dogs, but early references are almost 
unanimous in describing the specimens as being very small. 
Aristotle describes the marten as being about the size of a 
Maltese dog of the little, tiny sort. Athenodorus remarks 
that the Sybarites cared for nothing but Maltese puppy dogs 
and effeminate men. Acterius, Bishop of Amacia (about 

* This town in Italy has been connected through history with the breed, possibly 
from a reference given by the unreliable naturalist Pliny. 

144 



EVOLUTION OF THE PEKINGESE TYPE 

A.D. 375-405) remarks " that the Turks who live in the towns 
do not keep domestic dogs, and the dogs have no special 
masters, except the very little tiny Maltese and Polonian 
ones, which are much prized and which the women of good 
family rear for pleasure." * Dr. Caius f wrote : " There are 
also among us, among the kind of (or, another kind of) high- 
bred dogs, but outside the common run of these dogs (namely) 
those which Callimachus calls Melitei, from the Island of 
Melita in the Sicilian Strait, whence that kind chiefly had its 
origin also. That kind is very small indeed, and chiefly 
sought after for the amusement and pleasure of women. The 
smaller the kind the more pleasing it is, so that they may 
carry them in their bosoms in their beds ; and in their arms 
in their carriages. That kind of dog is altogether useless for 
any purposes except that they ease pain of the stomach, being 
often apphed to it, or frequently borne in the bosom of the 
diseased person (easing pain) by their moderate warmth." 
Fleming, writing in 1576, added an explanatory note to his 
translation of Dr. Caius, and remarked of the Maltese that 
they were" dogges curled and rough all over, which by 
reason of the length of their haire make showe neither of 
face nor of body ; yet these curs, forsooth, because they 
are so strange, are greatly set by, esteemed, taken up and 
made of many times in the rooms of the Spaniels Gentle or 
Comforter." 

The Maltese was subsequently called the Shock dog. 
Johnston, writing in 1755, describes the Maltese as being 
" either short-haired or long-haired or maned." " In size 
they resemble the ordinary weasel." " That they may be 
born with shaggy coats, their keepers line the places where 
they lie with sheepskins, that they may always have them 

* " Toy Dogs and their Ancestors," pp. 266, 269, 272, 25. 

f A physician to Queen Elizabeth, wrote in 1570. Translated in " Toy Dogs." 

K 145 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

before their eyes." * "At Lyons in Gaul they were sold for 
ten gold pieces each, and at Bologna for forty pounds." 

In 1588 Harrison speaks of the Maltese, " the smaller they 
be and thereto if they have a hole in the fore part of their 
heads the better they are accepted." * This appears to be the 
first European reference to the " stop " now characteristic of 
all the breeds of Chinese toy-dog. 

Overland communication between China and the Byzantine 
Empire existed up to the time of Hung Wu in a.d. 1371. 
Constantinople was taken by the Turks in 1453 ; exchange of 
dogs may therefore have taken place up to this period, but 
has not been recorded since the T'ang Dynasty. 

The literati continued to call the small race of Imperial 
dogs " Fu-lin " or " Folin " dog up to the middle of the 
seventeenth century. This may have been a piece of the 
literary conservatism common among Chinese writers. The 
name would, no doubt, have persisted still longer had the 
breed continued unchanged. 

From the latter part of the twelfth century two other breeds 
—the long-coated Chinese Lion-dog and the Lo-chiang dog 
were known to the Chinese. Probably no race was called 
" Pekingese " in China much earlier than the seventeenth 
century, though the Imperial court had taken up residence at 
Peking about the middle of the thirteenth century. The 
people of Peking have no special distinctive name for the 
" Pekingese " type of dog. This presumably is evidence in 
favour of its having always been the predominating type among 
the pet-dogs of the city. No paintings on porcelain or porce- 
lain models of the Pekingese type, dating from earlier than 
the beginning of the nineteenth century, are known to exist. 
It has been suggested that the Japanese toy-dog, whose 
importation to Japan dates from the seventh century, indicates 

* " Toy Dogs and their Ancestors," pp. 31, 32. 
146 



PEKINGESE DOG. 
From an Imperial Dog Book. Painter unknown. 



. White Pekingese. 

Prom an'ilmperial Dog Book. Painter unknown . 



EVOLUTION OF THE PEKINGESE TYPE 

the nature of the " Pekingese " breed of that period. This 
argument, however, must not be given undue weight, for 
there has been much communication between the Chinese 
and Japanese courts at subsequent periods. It is quite pos- 
sible that the modern Japanese spaniel has varied from the 
black-and-white Pekingese, common in Peking, only within 
recent years. In 1867 Dr. W. Lockhart wrote that " a small 
black-and-white, long-legged, pug-nosed, prominent-eyed 
dog " was one of the two kinds of Pug in China.* It has been 
remarked that the Japanese is more apt than the Pekingese to 
breed true. 

The Lo-chiang dog was a " pai " dog and consequently 
small, "short-headed," and "short-legged" before a.d. iooo. 
It was very possibly the Chinese pug and appears to have 
been fashionable at the Chinese court from the beginning of 
the eighth century to the middle of the eleventh century — 
possibly even to the removal of the capital from Hsianfu to 
Peking, about a.d. 1153. 

During the Yuan Dynasty, 1206-1333, there are two refer- 
ences to the " golden-coated dogs," which, on one occasion, 
are called " nimble " dogs, " commonly bred by people them- 
selves in their own homes." During the Ming Dynasty 
( 1 368-1 628) lap-dogs appear to have been out of fashion. 
For the first two hundred years China was practically closed 
to Europeans. Cats appear to have taken the place of dogs 
in Palace popularity. That the dogs were still bred appears 
certain, however. *' The lion is tawny like the golden- 
coated ' nao ' dog," remarks a book of the period.f 

The Manchus captured Peking in 1644. They favoured 
the Jesuit priests and allowed a limited amount of trade with 

* " On the Skull of the Chinese Pug-nosed Spaniel or Lap-dog," by Dr. J. E. Gray, 
F.R.S., Proc. Zool. Soc, 1867, p. 40. 
t " Pen Tsao Rang No." 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

foreigners. Jesuit priests were resident at the Court in Peking, 
and Kircher, writing in the first days of the Dynasty, remarks 
that the noble ladies " to pass away their time sport with little 
dogs, birds, and such delights." 

The Manchus, being of Mongolian origin, naturally en- 
couraged the Lamaist form of Buddhism. Thibet had been 
conquered in 1645, and in 1653 the Dalai Lama paid a visit 
to the Emperor in Peking. The popularity of small lion- 
like dogs at their court appears to have been stimulated by 
reasons of state in addition to that affection for animal 
curiosities which has been common to the courts of both 
East and West from the earliest times. The Manchu Em- 
perors, surrounded by a horde of sycophants and flatterers, 
and known as the personifications of the Sun and Sons of 
Heaven, were the last to diminish the importance of any 
practice which would bring them into association with the 
Buddhist deities. 

The Tibetan grand lamas encouraged this similitude. 
According to Chinese authorities they originated the Manchu 
dynastic name, basing it upon the name of Manjusri Buddha, 
the Chinese Wen Shu, who is always represented in Chinese 
sacred literature as riding upon a lion. " According to report 
handed down by the ancients, the Manchu power was 
strengthened from the time that in sending state dispatches 
the Tibetans honoured the Manchu Emperors by calling 
them the Man Chu Hsi Li (Manjusri) Emperors, which name 
in the Buddhist Gospels denotes Wen Shu Buddha."* A 
Chinese scholar suggests that the sending of lion-dogs to 
Chinese Emperors by the Tibetans symbolized presentation 
of lions to Wen Shu Buddha. 

The early Manchu Emperors were extremely fond of sport, 
and spent much of their time in hunting and shooting. They 

• " Complete Chinese Geography " (" Ch'ung Hua Tihi Ch'uan Chih "). 
148 




NINE BUDDHIST LIONS. 

May nine generations live together in peace." Lions and 

embroidered balls 




PORCELAIN BOWLS WITH EIGHT DOGS, TAO KUANG PERIOD (PA-ERH KOU) 





PORCELAIN SNUFF BOTTLES, PEKING 



Tojacep, 14S 



EVOLUTION OF THE PEKINGESE TYPE 

kept numerous dogs for the pursuit of deer, tiger, and bear 
in their parks, and even used hunting-Hons. It is, therefore, 
not surprising that the court ladies took special interest in 
pet-dogs — a race which is considered by the Chinese of Peking 
to be specially associated with the Manchus. In the north 
Manchurian home of the dynasty breeds of toy-dog still 
exist. 

Association of the Manchu Emperors with Lamaism, with 
Manjusri, whose " hah-pah " dog was transformed into the 
mighty lion upon which the Buddha was accustomed to ride, 
and with the numerous Lamaist monuments of spirit-lions 
cast or chiselled during the days of Ch'ien Lung and K'ang 
Hsi, suggests that it was during early Manchu days that the 
" golden-coated nimble-dog " of Peking became modified by 
a combination of the characteristics of the breeds existing in 
Peking and in Manchuria, to something of its present form. 

The cult of the lap-dog in China appears to have reached 
its chief development during the Tao Kuang (1821-1851) 
period. The Chinese will explain that the Manchu nobles and 
ladies never had greater surplus of rents and " face-powder " 
money to send to the " Old Home " in Manchuria than during 
the Tao Kuang period, and it was possibly then that the 
" sleeve-dogs," stunted dwarfs of any breed — known to exist 
to this day at Aigun * and Hsia-kwei in Northern Manchuria 

* The following is from a reliable Chinese correspondent : " A breed recognized as 
sleeve-dogs exists at Aigun in Hai-Lung-Kiang, and in all the vicinity. I have a friend 
who is a native of I-Lan, where, he says, sleeve-dogs are very plentiful. They are 
very small and extremely intelligent. They can take things with their mouths as 
men do with their hands. They know how to sit, beg, roll and to do other tricks. 
Owing to their small size and weakness, they are always defeated by cats, when caused 
to fight with them. 

" Most of the rich persons, managers of shops, or those of such inclination keep 
these dogs. During the period when big sleeves were fashionable, these dogs were 
kept in the sleeves and were called ' sleeve-dogs.' At the present time, however, 
they are called " Pen-Lo " (lump forehead) ' Pa-Erh,' or the ' Shih-tsu Pa-Erh ' (lion 
Paerh). The name ' sleeve-dogs ' has disappeared. 

149 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

— were imported into Peking. After nearly a century of 
peace and prosperity, the inhabitants of the capital had become 
rich, food stood at less than a quarter of its present prices, and 
the cost of living was extraordinarily low. It was possibly 
at this period, if not at the time of Lord Macartney's visit to 
Ch'ien Lung in 1795, that England first heard of Chinese 
" sleeve- dogs," and of the curious custom connected with 
their name — a name, by the way, which is now unknown to 
dog-fanciers in Peking. Dogs do not appear to have been 
carried in the sleeves in Peking within the last seventy years, 
for the late Empress Dowager objected to the artificial 
dwarfing of such small dogs, which are always in the nature 
of freaks. Broad sleeves have been out of fashion in Peking 
since 1900. 

It does not, however, appear at all certain that the custom of 
carrying dogs in their sleeves originated among the Chinese.* 
Of the shock or comforter (now called Maltese) dogs Dauben- 
ton, a commentator on Buffon's " Histoire Naturelle," 
remarks : " These dogs were very fashionable a few years ago, 

" The following are average measurements of this kind of dog : 

Length of body ....... 7-8 in. 

Height of body 3.5 or 1.8 in. 

Length of leg i .6 or i .8 in. 

(Measurements converted from the Chinese.) 

Tail, together with fringe ..... about 3 in. 
Coat : Same as the Pekingese (' Pa-Erh Kou '). 

Long-coated and short-coated. 
Head : Upper part rectangular and under part round. 
The forehead is high ; mouth very short ; bridge of the nose pressed 
inward ; tip of the nose tilted upwards ; panther eye ; ear like the 
leaf of the apricot. The head may be generally described as a 
' Hon head.' 

" From the above it appears that there is practically no difference between these 
dogs and the Peking ' Pa-Erh ' dog. 

" This kind of dog produces only one or two in each litter. In the city of Kirin 
itself there are many long-mouthed large ' Pa-Erh ' dogs. It is unknown whether small 
specimens of this breed of dog exist there." 

* James Watson's " The Dog Book." 



EVOLUTION OF THE PEKINGESE TYPE 

but at present are hardly seen. They were so small that the 
ladies carried them in their sleeves." 

The long coat, including the flowing sleeve, was for many 
centuries the Chinese hallmark of gentility. During the K'ang 
Hsi period spectacles and thumb -ring gave added importance 
to the wearer, and a little later it became the fashion to greet a 
friend by producing a costly snuff-bottle for his admiration 
and refreshment. This custom became universal under Tao 
Kuang, a stout supporter of snuff. His conjugal devotion 
and the passion of his wife for dog-breeding were therefore 
fittingly pictured upon the snuff-bottle. So carefully was the 
breeding of the Palace dogs attended to during this period, 
that eight distinct varieties are said to have been evolved, 
giving a fresh meaning ("pah'rh " — in colloquial " eight ") to 
their race-name. Their differences appear in some cases to 
have been largely a matter of colour and length of coat. The 
Yellow City must have been the home of many thousands 
of dogs, and the eunuchs, up to four thousand in number, 
living in the " Forty-eight Places " of the palace, vied with 
one another in producing remarkable specimens. It was not 
the custom of that period to dock the tails of the palace dogs. 
This custom does not appear to have been introduced previous 
to the Hsien Feng (1851) period. This Emperor shared the 
enthusiasm of his predecessor for the Imperial breed. Short 
" docking " appears to have been introduced, and to persist, 
under the impression that more compact growth of the body is 
thereby induced. 

The late Empress Dowager Tzu Hsi's fondness for the ^^ 
" Pekingese " breed is well known. She and the Eastern 
Empress had nearly a hundred dogs under their personal 
supervision about thirty-five years ago. She seems to have 
encouraged the comparison of her lion-dogs to the spirit-lions 
of Buddha, with a view to attracting to herself — universally 

151 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

known in China as the " Old Buddha " — more of the prestige 
rendered to the Lamaist Buddha by the might of his super- 
natural leonine supporters. 

Miss Carl, who spent ten months at the Chinese Court, says 
that the Empress, being an artist, was chiefly interested in 
breeding to colour and in developing symmetrical markings on 
her dogs. She was most desirous of securing a white forehead- 
spot and symmetry of saddle-mark upon the back of her 
specimens. She strongly deprecated the development of any 
abnormality of form, such as very bowed legs, short nose, or 
protruding tongue. One of the favourite dogs of the Empress 
was of the long-coated variety, which she called Tibetan. 
The Empress Dowager was not successful in breeding this 
somewhat delicate race. 

Miss Carl saw some of the Imperial dog-books. The only 
dog described as a " sleeve-dog " was a short-coated variety 
of very small size. The Empress Dowager objected strongly 
to stunting in Pekingese or any other breed. 

Europeans appear to have first remarked the " Pekingese " 
breed of dogs on the occupation of the Chinese capital in 
i860. The finding of a small " Pekingese " dog (afterwards 
christened " Looty ") by Capt. Dunne at the destruction of 
the Yuen Ming Yuan Palace by the Allied troops, and its 
subsequent presentation to Queen Victoria, are matters of 
history. At least six specimens appear to have reached 
England during this period, but the only offspring of the dogs 
then imported appears to have been that of the pair secured by 
Lord John Hay. 

Dr. Rennie remarks in 1861 that the breed of Peking dogs 
was a very peculiar one — " something between the King 
Charles and the Pug." He states that many of the dogs 
were forcibly taken from their owners during the occupation 
of the city. He also describes a visit to the Lung Fu Ssu, 
152 



EVOLUTION OF THE PEKINGESE TYPE 

where he purchased " one of the Httle dogs peculiar to Pe- 
king," and paid about two-and-a-half dollars (then about ten 
shillings) for it, another being bought for twenty dollars.* 

The difficulty of obtaining dogs from the palace prior to the 
Boxer troubles in 1900, together with the long voyage to 
Western Europe, accounts for the fact that few palace speci- 
mens were imported prior to the death of the late Empress 
Dowager in 191 1. 

After the Boxer trouble, on returning to Peking from 
Shansi, the Empress Tzu Hsi presented Mrs. Conger, wife 
of the American Minister, with a pair of the palace dogs. She 
also gave one to Miss Carl, who painted her portraits, one of 
which includes the Empress's favourite dog Shadza (lit. 
'• fool "). 

At the funeral of the Empress Dowager in 191 1, Moo-Tan 
(Peony), a yellow-and- white dog with a white spot on its 
forehead, was led before her coffin by the chief eunuch. Pi 
Hsiao Li, in obedience to the precedent which had been set 
nine hundred years before, when the favourite dog of the 
Emperor T'ai Tsung of the Sung Dynasty was led in state to 
his master's tomb. In due accord with precedent, too, the 
late Empress's dog was supposed to have died at the time ; 
others state that it was sold by one of the eunuchs. 

The Lung Fu Ssu Temple, mentioned by Dr. Rennie, is 
now the scene of a fair held for six days in every month. 
It shares with the Hu Kuo Ssu, another old Lamaist temple, 
the distinction of being the only Chinese market for " Pek- 
ingese " dogs, and is regularly attended by eunuchs from the 
palace, who often sell inferior dogs at prices varying from a 
few to about thirty dollars. The story is current in Peking 
of the much-prized European pet of the Imperial breed which 
was stolen and ultimately redeemed from a Chinese owner. 

* D. F. Rennie, " Peking and the Pekingese," John Murray, 1865. 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

It was proved on investigation that the cherished treasure 
had changed hands at the Lung Fu Ssu dog-cheap indeed 
at about sevenpence (thirty cents). 

Dogs of good breed still exist in Peking ; but native interest 
in them has dwindled with the diminishing power of their 
Imperial protectors, and with the increasing poverty of the 
Manchu nobles. It appears likely that unless a powerful 
reaction sets in within the next few years, the present dearth ot 
good specimens will reduce the race in Peking to a dodo-like 
extinction. 



154 



CHAPTER IX 
POINTS OF THE CHINESE PEKINGESE TYPE 

THE present-day Chinese attach chief importance to 
head development in their specimens. This is 
possibly due to the fact that strong and well-developed 
body-points are the rule rather than the exception in Peking, 
where the chief weaknesses are degeneracy of the head,' 
possibly due to exportation of many of the best specimens,' 
and shortness of coat, owing to the heat of the summers! 
The Chinese distinguish between two distinct types of head 
—the abacus-ball-shaped ("suanp 'an tze-erh") and the apple 
(" P'ing kuo") or dome-shaped. First-rate specimens of either 
type are held in equal estimation. The abacus is the Chinese 
counting-board, and the shape of the abacus ball may be 
reproduced by cutting off about one-fourth of its width from 
opposite sides of a wooden sphere. The characteristics of 
this type are shortness between the face and back of the head, 
together with broad dome giving, with the setting-on of the 
ears, a rectangular look to the head. 

It is in this type of head that an endeavour is made to reach 
the ideal of having the eyes so far apart and the tip of nose 
and forehead so much in the same plane that a silver dollar 
(about the size of a half-crown) will, if lying flat on the 
plane of the dog's nostrils, touch the forehead, and at the 
same time lie at its broadest between, and not covering, any 
part of the eyes. The Chinese description of this type of face 
is " knife-cut mouth " (" tao ch'ieh tsui-rh "), the idea being 

^55 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

that the appearance of the nose is as if cut with a knife slicing 
downwards on the front plane of the forehead. In this type, 
the face should be as rectangular as possible (" Ssu fang 
li-erh "), and not long and oval-shaped (" ch'ang hua li-erh "). 
The apple-headed C p'ing-kuo nao-tai ") type of dog is broad 
from the face to the back of the head, has a domed forehead, 
the front of the skull protuberant, and the eyes less far apart. 
This shape is reminiscent of the King Charles and Blenheim 
spaniel type rather than that of the English " Pekingese." 
It seems likely that these points are characteristic of two 
distinct varieties which have, in modern times, been crossed 
through paucity of really good specimens of either breed. 
Among the colours best liked are : 

(i) The tortoise-shell face (" : ai ming li-erh"), considered 
attractive on account of simulation of laughter ; 

(2) The three-flower face (" san hua li-erh "), which is black 

round the eyes, yellow on forehead, and white round 
the mouth ; and 

(3) The head black (" wu t'ou ") with the remainder of 

the body another colour. 
The shape and insetting of the nose, the most distinctive 
feature of the race, are perhaps of relatively less importance 
in China, where the objective of the breeder is not necessarily 
altogether snub-nosed, than in the West. Chinese breeders 
insist that the best shape for the tip of the nose is that of 
the " Ru-yi," a Buddhist emblem in the nature of a sceptre, 
whose shape and significance are equally difficult of definition. 
The name refers to the boss at the end of the " Ru-yi," which 
is very similar to another and rather more fixed standard of 
shape, that of the Chinese conventional cloud. This latter 
is the nose outline found in most of the bronze Chinese 
lions. When the nose is somewhat depressed at the tip, 
156 



PEKINGESE DOG BY TSOU YI-KWEl— 1686-1766. 
Vice-Minister of Board of Rites. From an Imperial Dog Book. 



CHINESE PUG. 
From an Imperial Dog Book. Tsou Yi-Kwei, K'ang Hsi period. 



POINTS OF THE CHINESE PEKINGESE TYPE 

giving a rounded or somewhat hooked expression, the name 
" sheep-nose " is applied. If very pointed at the tip, with the 
side lobes somewhat depressed, the dog is said to be tortoise- 
nosed. The nose must, of course, be black-tipped. There is 
doubt as to whether this is the case with the tongue, for though 
the tongue of the Chinese chow-dog must be " like as if he 
had been drinking ink," this does not appear to be essential in 
the " Pekingese." The encouragement which this point does 
obtain is said to be due to the opinion held by Chinese 
breeders in Peking that dogs with spotted or black tongues 
are more easily saleable to Europeans. The tongue of a 
well-bred dog should, from birth, have a tendency to project 
a little to the right or left of the mouth. This point is fre- 
quently illustrated in the " Dog Books," and though dis- 
couraged by the late Empress Dowager, is much valued by the 
majority of Chinese. It may be mentioned that the Lamaist 
" hou " — a mythical animal very similar to the lion — is 
represented with an inordinately long tongue, the possession 
of a similar characteristic being also one of the thirty-two 
Superior Marks of Buddha. The tongues of Chinese dogs 
are often rendered permanently long by forcible stretching 
during puppyhood. In this case, the tongue projects in the 
middle of the mouth. This is considered a bad point. A 
very long tongue is sometimes the result of pneumonia, and 
the Chinese refer to it as a " strangled ghost " (" Tiao Sze 
Kwei"), on account of the fact that in Chinese plays the 
masks used to represent the ghosts of the garotted or hanged 
are made with protruding tongues of extraordinary length. 

An interesting phenomenon is the fairly frequent appearance 
of very large-sized dogs, nearly always with fine head-de- 
velopment. This is said to be encouraged by over-feeding ; 
but the occurrences appear to be throw-backs to large-sized 
ancestral stock. If of male sex, these are never used for 

157 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

breeding, but become guard-dogs for the owner's kennel, 
which often among the breeders of the palace contains as 
many as twenty dogs. The eunuchs also use them to a certain 
extent for dog-fighting. 

The ears should be placed well behind the middle axis of 
the forehead, not too high on the skull, and should be well 
feathered (not turned outwards in front), giving the appearance 
of a rake (" pah-tzu "), nor yet projecting at the side (" chaio- 
tzu," or horn-ear). Other bad points occasionally found in 
China are sesamum-seed ear (" chih-ma-erh-t'ou," or prick- 
ear), or the ear sharp-pointed and pushed forward. 

The mouth and cheeks may be somewhat round and dump- 
ling-like, not under-shot as to the lower-jaw (" Ti kai tien," 
" earth covers the heaven "). The lower jaw and chin should 
be well developed, not frog-hke (" ha-mah tsui"). There 
should not be projection of the upper and lower lips and gums 
(" to cherh "). The best mouths, of course, are those in which 
the lower part of the face is in the same plane as the front 
of the ear ("tao ch'ieh tsui"). 

The Chinese liken the eyes of their best specimens to the 
" Loong Ching Yii " (" dragon-eye fish "), or gold-fish. They 
should be very large, lustrous, and prominent, with the iris 
broad and of old-gold colour (" bi chi yen-erh," water-chestnut 
eyes). If showing rather more white they are called " leopard 
eyes." 

Ideal body development — next in importance to that of the 
head — requires a well-defined waist, slightly concave (sycee- 
like) back, a short, compact and sturdy body, front legs shorter 
than the hind legs, with the object of producing a rolling 
gait, which should, however, be steady and free. This gait 
is compared to the movement of the plentifully finned gold- 
fish. The fore-legs should be short, not straight and stick- 
like (" chih pang t'ui ") ; the hind legs should not be bent and 

158 





' HO YUN. 1830 CHIU CHING." CHIN SHIH, TOONG CHt) 




CHINESE PICTURE (RECENT) USED IN BREEDING 



To face p. 15S 



POINTS OF THE CHINESE PEKINGESE TYPE 

hoop-like. The fore-legs should be turned slightly outwards 
at the shoulder, and there must be a slight curvature thence 
down to the toes, wlich should turn somewhat outwards, 
but not enough to produce the serious defect called " crab- 
toes." The curvature of the fore-legs must not be ex- 
aggerated, for in such cases there is usually a deficiency of 
bone. This fault is sometimes so pronounced as to produce 
the state of " sitting tiger " (" pah-hu'erh "), in which the dog 
tends to remain continually seated. Weakness of bone is 
one of the worst faults. Closeness of the legs is a similar 
fault, often produced through malnutrition during puppy- 
hood. A certain straightness of leg is admissible in China 
among the best specimens of " Pekingese " dogs. Ex- 
aggerated massiveness and curvature of leg-bone are not 
considered absolutely essential there. Some of the best 
" Pekingese " in China resemble the Japanese rather than the 
English variety in straightness of leg. 

Breeders in the Celestial capital associate the special 
" Pekingese " type with the Manchus. Some of them say 
that the name " ha-pa " is a Manchu word meaning " to 
roll in the walk," referring to the distinctive walk and gambols 
of the " Pekingese " breed. 

We might fairly conclude that at certain periods in Chinese 
history careful breeding was pursued, and that a tolerably 
fixed type was evolved. Some Chinese breeders state that 
early in the nineteenth century specialization had taken 
place to such a degree that eight distinct breeds, instead of the 
three now remaining, had been evolved. The occurrence, 
during the Tao Kuang period, of porcelains illustrating eight 
dogs — possibly a play on the name — is a confirmation of this 
theory. Much of the distinction between some of these 
breeds was in length and coloration of the coat and in mark- 
ings. In Peking, the dogs of this breed carry a coat com- 

159 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

pletely changed twice yearly. This change begins in March 
with the shedding of the long winter coat. The short summer 
coat is changed towards August. The shedding of the winter 
coat is more sudden and complete than in Europe on account 
of the more abrupt change from extreme cold to the hot 
summer. Consequently, the Chinese dog is apt to shed its 
coat in patches, like the camel, and the coat never attains the 
luxuriance found in Europe. Some fanciers used to send 
their dogs to the hills during the hot weather in order to 
avoid this abrupt shedding of some of the coat, for heavy 
feathering of the tail, a good ruff, " shirt-front," and fringe 
behind the legs and on the feet are fully appreciated. Some 
fanciers give their dogs linseed oil in small doses with a view 
to securing brilliancy of coat. 

Of self colours, the Chinese consider three to be important : 
the apricot, the liver, and the black. The Chinese apricot 
fruit varies from a golden-yellow on the sunless side to a 
rich orange red shading into yellow on the sunny side. It is 
possible that this colour came into fashion on account of the 
famous specimen owned by the Tao Kuang Empress. Among 
self-colours this is undoubtedly the most highly prized : and 
if it is accompanied by a golden silky gloss, the Chinese will 
make far greater allowance than the European for weakness in 
other points. So great has been the appreciation of this 
combination, that it has been embodied in a numerical couplet, 
" Chin Ssu Ha-pah," * which is proverbial and commonly 
used in Peking in the drinking game of Noria, which con- 
sists in guessing the number of fingers extended by the two 
opponents. This couplet stands for the number eight, and 
the golden-coated "hah-pah" dog is caused to compare in 
rarity with the rank '* t'ou ping t'ing t'ai," the chief button of 

* This name dates from the Yuen or Sung Dynastj'. Dogs of this colour are 
believed to have been extinct in China for the last sixty years. 

1 60 




CLOTH LANTERN COVER. SHEN CHEN-LIN 




SILK FAN SIGNED " SHEN LIN," igoi. AFTER THE 
STYLE OF THE YUAN DYNASTY (1360 A.D.) 



CHINESE FAN 




CHIU SHIH TOONG CHU FAN. TAO KUANG PERIOD 



To face p. 160 



POINTS OF THE CHINESE PEKINGESE TYPE 

mandarin rank, a couplet which stands for the number one 
in the same game. 

At one period the Chinese made successful efforts to pro- 
duce white " Pekingese " dogs, free from the white noses 
and pink eyes due to albinism. These may date back to the 
Mongol Dynasty, for the Yuen Emperors appear not to have 
shared the Chinese objection to white in animals through its 
association with mourning, Marco Polo records that 100,000 
white horses were presented to Kublai Khan on New Year's 
Day, and this custom continued at least to the time of K'ang 
Hsi. 

Among the parti-colours, pride of place is given to tortoise- 
shell specimens : these are followed in importance by yellow 
and white, liver and white, and black and white. The 
Chinese have a picturesque way of describing dogs with special 
markings as " flowered " dogs. The admiration in which an 
imported dog, such as the pointer, is held on account of its 
markings, is very striking to the newcomer in China. It is 
natural in a city of clans that there should be a tendency to 
specialize in particular colours among certain of the clans and 
families. This would render certain colours and markings 
more stable in China than elsewhere. Similar circumstances 
may account for the persistence of the white spot commonly 
found on the forehead of ** Pekingese " dogs, and may throw 
light upon the origin of the Blenheim spaniels whose " spot " 
is known to have been characteristic in the original breed, 
though the point now rarely occurs. A white blaze upon the 
forehead of a horse is believed to be unlucky by the Chinese, 
and they quote history to prove this. This point in small 
dogs, however, is prized and encouraged by selective breeding. 
It may be recalled that one of the thirty-two superior marks 
of Buddha is " between the eyebrows a little ball shining like 
snow." In this, we have, perhaps, the origin of the universal 

L 161 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

Chinese custom of wearing a piece of jade or other precious 
stone in the front of the hat. The wearing of pearls in this 
way to mark official rank was a special prerogative of the 
Manchu Emperors, and can be traced to the T'ang Dynasty 
(a.d. 6 1 8). The Emperors of that and other periods gave 
official rank to their most prized specimens, and perpetuation 
of the " Ting-Tzu " (official button) thus becomes easy of 
explanation. A variation of the white spot is the case " T'ung 
T'ien Bai " (" White [spot] leading to heaven ") in which the 
spot spreads to a broad blaze on the forehead, sometimes 
continuing well over the back. 

It has been suggested that, because Chinese officials and 
literati were inordinately proud of their huge horn-bound 
spectacles, the breeding of " spectacles " into the race of 
" Pekingese " may have been favoured in China. It is pos- 
sible, however, that the recurrence of " spectacled " (" Sze 
Yen ") dogs was not subject to as much encouragement as is 
found among European breeders. The epithet " four eyes," 
applied to a man, carries more stigma in China than in 
Europe. In addition to its connotation of all that is crooked, 
it bears a special omen of bad luck, derived from Fengshui, 
and an implied comparison to the canine race. Among 
the common people the term is also applied to the prig who 
wears spectacles to ape the wisdom of the short-sighted old 
man or of the too studious professor. The wearing of spec- 
tacles is a comparatively modern custom, and has never been 
an official sign of rank. It is, therefore, possible that, as in 
the case of the white " shirt-front " — which is a point of 
minor importance in Chinese specimens, having no imagina- 
tive meaning in China — this matter of the " spectacles " is 
liable to greater encouragement in Europe than it ever had in 
China. Chinese breeders distinguish between specimens 
having the spectacle marks poorly developed (" an ") and those 
162 



POINTS OF THE CHINESE PEKINGESE TYPE 

whose markings are clear (" ming sze yen "). To take rank 
as being suitable for portraiture in the Imperial Dog Books, a 
spectacled dog should have fire-coated cheeks, fore-legs and 
rump, and, when in possession of these, is considered very 
handsome. Other markings which are much appreciated are 
the *' five clear flowers " (" wu ming hua "), five clear patches on 
a ground of different colour, and " three divided flowers " 
(" san chieh hua "), consisting of three unbroken patches of 
colour, such as a large spot on the back, another on the head, 
and another on the hind-legs. A variety of this, which is 
particularly admired, possibly on account of Buddhist as- 
sociation with the Manjusri's harnessed lion, is the case in 
which the back-spot is centrally placed and takes the shape of 
a saddle (" an-tzu hua|"). A similar variety is that in which 
the saddle-mark spreads right round the body in the form 
of a sash-marking (" t'ai-tzu hua "), sometimes with an ex- 
tension on one side like the overhanging flap of the Chinese 
girdle. The sash is still worn in China, just as was pre- 
viously the case among the belted earls of Europe, as an 
exclusive privilege to indicate rank. A yellow belt is worn 
by certain members of the Imperial family only. Similarly, 
a white sash-mark on a black dog is taken to simulate the 
jade belt worn by the Grand Councillors of pre-republican 
days. Small spots sometimes occur on the coat of the lips 
and forefeet (" cho hua ti-erh "), and constitute a rather bad 
point. 

Markings which are found on black dogs only are, first, the 
"sable cloud over snow" (*' wu yun kai hsueh"), white feet, 
white stomach, black back and head ; and secondly, the 
" standing in the snow " ('* hsueh li chan "), black coat with four 
white paws. But white feet in black dogs remind the Chinese 
of the white shoes used only in mourning. A special name is 
also given to the specimen having one paw of a colour differing 

163 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

from that of the others ('* ku ti'erh "). A hind-leg marking 
which is appreciated, especially if paired, is that in which the 
lower part of the leg is of a distinctive colour with a narrow 
ridge of another colour above it, giving an impression of the 
Chinese trouser (" t'ao k'u "). 

Tiger-stripes on the coat after the manner of a tabby cat 
are much appreciated. These, however, and the " prince " 
character written in wrinkles upon the forehead, are attri- 
butes rather of the short-coated or Pug type than of the 
" Pekingese." Similarly, an elastic skin enabling the dog 
to be picked up by the scruff without pain, though existing 
to a more pronounced extent in the short-coated type, is 
looked upon with favour. 

Within recent years, the Imperial breed of dogs has been 
made the sport of Chinese fashion. The Chinese occasionally 
cross the breeds of the three races of dogs — the lion, the pug, 
and the Pekingese — and it seems likely that the stock has 
from time to time been much varied by importation of new 
blood from various parts of the vast Chinese Empire — a 
fortunate circumstance, for the breed would, no doubt, be 
wanting in gameness and fail to possess the spirited and fear- 
less carriage which are among the most important factors 
in its strong individuality, had there been no cross-breeding 
from a remote past, in the restricted environment of the 
Peking palace. It is found that throw-backs to a long- 
haired type, or to a short-haired pug ancestor, occur occasion- 
ally even among " Pekingese " in Europe in the absence of 
contamination for several generations. It appears not im- 
probable that many of the dogs presented to the Emperors 
by officials and eunuchs in the Palace were obtained by cross- 
breeding. It must be explained that although at the end of 
the Manchu regime there must have been many hundreds of 
dogs in the Palace, only a few were under the eye of their 
164 




lacquer picture of pekingese dogs, pah-erh kou, 
k'ang hsi period, 1662-1723 (author's collection) 




PANEL MARKED THREE DIVIDED FLOWERS DOG. TAO KUANG PERIOD. AFTER LU PAO 
SHUN, PAINTER OF THE MING PERIOD. HSING KE T'U (HSING AND THE PIGEONS) 



To i ace p. 104 



POINTS OF THE CHINESE PEKINGESE TYPE 

Imperial masters, the rest being bred by eunuchs, who 
bought and sold among themselves and occasionally presented 
or sold their best specimens to Chinese officials. As an 
instance of modification through fashion, it may be mentioned 
that during the Tao Kuang period the practice of docking the 
dogs' tails, almost invariably carried out during recent years 
in the palace, w^as not always customary. This practice 
appears to have originated under the late Empress Dowager 
in the reign of Hsien Feng, after 1815. The change was 
probably made with the object of obtaining greater resem- 
blance to the Chinese idea of the lion, which is always a 
" cur tail " beast. The custom of docking is useful as an 
indicator of the period of Pekingese pictures. 

Another change in fashion was due to the Empress's ob- 
jection to the so-called sleeve-dogs — freaks whose pro- 
duction must often have been the result of much pain. 



16s 



CHAPTER X 
THE CHINESE PUG 

THE origin of the European as well as that of the 
Chinese pug-dog is wrapped in obscurity. Modern 
European trade with China by sea dates from about 
1516, when the Portuguese started trading at Canton. The 
Spanish traded in 1575 from Manila, and the Dutch in 1604 
at Amoy and Formosa. 

Jesse * suggests that pugs first came to England in the 
early part of William IIFs reign (1688-1702), and were then 
called Dutch pugs.f " At that time they were generally 
decorated with orange ribbons, and were in great request 
among the courtiers, from the King (a grandson of Charles I) 
being very partial to them." During this period pug-dogs 
may have been imported direct to Holland, and even to 
England, from China and Japan, for in 1662 the Governor of 
Formosa, after capture of Fort Zeelandia by the pirate 
Coxinga, was released from imprisonment through measures 
taken personally by the Prince of Orange, who subsequently 
became William HI of England. The King's partiality appears 
to have been due to the fact that the King's grandfather, 
William I of Orange, owed his hfe to the warning given, during 
his campaign against the Spaniards, by one of these dogs. 

Up to the introduction of the inquisition into the Nether- 
lands William of Orange held high rank as governor of 

* " Anecdotes of Dogs," Jesse, 1858. 

•j- The first recorded use of the name in connexion with dogs occurs in 1731. " Pug. 
A nickname for a monkey or dog," Bailey, " Skeat's Dictionary." 

166 



THE CHINESE PUG 

Holland, Zealand and Utrecht under the Spanish Govern- 
ment. In 1 57 1 he took up arms against King Philip of 
Spain, and the incident recorded by Sir Roger WiUiams 
must have taken place between this time and the recall of 
Alva in 1573. The Portuguese may vv^ell have introduced 
the Chinese pug into Europe, and the dog in question may 
have been secured from Portugal. 

" The Prince of Orange being retired into the camp, 
Julian Romero, w^ith earnest persuasions, procured licence of 
the Duke d'Alva to hasard a camisado or night attack, upon 
the Prince. At midnight Julian sallied out of the trenches 
with a thousand armed men, mostly pikes, who forced all the 
guards that they found in their way into the place of arms 
before the Prince's tent, and killed two of his secretaries. 
The Prince himself escaped very narrowly, for I have often 
heard him say that he thought but for a dog he should have 
been taken or slain. The attack was made with such resolu- 
tion that the guards took no alarm until their fellows were 
running to the place of arms with their enemies at their 
heels, when this dog, hearing a great noise, fell to scratching 
and crying, and awakened him before any of his men ; and 
though the Prince slept armed, with a lackey always holding 
one of his horses ready bridled and saddled, yet at the going 
out of his tent with much ado he recovered his horse before 
the enemy arrived. Nevertheless one of his equerries was 
slain, taking horse presently after him, as were divers of his 
servants. The Prince, to show his gratitude, until his dying 
day kept one of that dog's race, and so did many of his friends 
and followers. These animals were not remarkable for their 
beauty, being little white dogs, with crooked noses, called 
camuses (flat-nosed)." * 

* " Actions in the Low Countries," Sir Roger Williams, printed 1618. 
Camuses. The French word camus means " a person having a short and flat 
nose. Used of the dogs of Artois and Boulogne which were varieties of ' carlin ' 

167 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

The main points of difference between the European pug, 
Blenheim Spaniel, and King Charles Spaniel are the result of 
modern specialization, rather than of ancient individuality. 
" It is impossible to distinguish the skull of a Terrier from 
that of a Spaniel, or either of these from the Pariah Dog of 
India, or the * Mongrel Cur ' as it is called in England," 
wrote a learned zoological authority in 1868.* It would be 
interesting to secure a scientific opinion on the skulls of these 
breeds as developed at the present time. There appear to 
have been very few references to European " short-mouthed " 
dogs, exclusive of the bull-dog, previous to the nineteenth 
century. The first mention of abnormally short noses occurs 
in 1845. Youatt speaks of the new short-nosed type as an 
innovation. ** The King Charles Spaniel of the present day 
is materially altered for the worse. The muzzle is almost as 
short, and the forehead as ugly and prominent, as the veriest 
bull-dog. . . . The Blenheim Spaniel has degenerated of 
late. The species may be distinguished by the length and 
silkiness of the coat, the deep fringe about the ear, the full 
and moist eye and the blackness of the palate." f 

Chinese records prove the existence of " short-mouthed " 
dogs in the time of Confucius, 700 B.C., and similar dogs 
were used for sporting purposes in Shansi, 500 B.C. But as 
to shortness of coat there is no evidence indicating the period 
it was developed in the Chinese pug. The Chinese name for 
the pug breed is " Lo-sze," and it is interesting to note that 

(little short-coated dogs with black and dcrasd nose). Term probably derived from 
Italian camoscio or Spanish camusa." " Dictionn. Littrd." 

"Murray's Dictionary" quotes: " 1601. Holland Pliny, 1336, 'The forfiier 
have flat noses, the other are flat and camoise nosed upward.' 1386. Chaucer, 
Reeve's Tale, ' Round was his face and camuse was his nose.' 175 1. Chambers's 
Cycl. S.V., ' The Tartars are great admirers of camus beauties.' " 

The Hon. Mrs. Neville Lytton sa5's, " A white toy spaniel survived till the time 
of Queen Charlotte." " Toy Dogs." p. 39. 

* Proc. Zool. Soc, 1868, p. 510. 

t " Toy Dogs and their Ancestors," Lady Lytton, p. 89. 

168 




LO-SZE DOG. "SHEN CHEN-LIN. CAREFUL DRAWING* 




CHINESE LO-SZE OR PUG DOG, 
PEKING, I914 



To fact p. i63 



THE CHINESE PUG 

the same characters are used to designate the old name of 
Russia up to the Tao Kuang period. This suggests that the 
breed came from Russia. It may be suggested that breeders 
who have been able to secure such extraordinary special 
characteristics as those of the " Pekingese " found small 
difficulty, especially in a hot climate, in evolving a short- 
coated race from the " short-legged " and " short-headed " 
pet dog existing lOo years B.C. It seems likely, on the 
opinion of authorities who have studied the question almost 
entirely from the European standpoint, that European pugs 
are the offspring of Chinese ancestors. Vero Shaw (1881) 
says : " It is my firm opinion that the origin of the present 
Pug Dog is nothing but the common English fawn-coloured, 
smooth-coated terrier bitch crossed with a little jet-black 
Chinese terrier, of which I also have seen some ; they have 
the short nose and high head, and very curly tails." * 

Mr. Watson states that, at the outset, the best English pugs 
were of Dutch origin, and that the Willoughby strain came 
from St. Petersburg. He says in support of the theory that 
the pug came originally from China, " We have in the pug a 
dog which in his peculiarities has no counterpart in any 
European dog. The bull-dog has a short face, and was 
square-headed, with cropped ears and a straight tail, when the 
pug was first known, and had an entirely different tempera- 
ment from the pug." 

" All the English pugs of prominence from 1865 to 1895, 
also all our best pugs from 1880 to 1900, trace to Click, a 
dog of pure Chinese stock." f 

The son of the owner of Click is quoted as stating : " Click's 
parents — Lamb and Moss — were Chinese beyond dispute. 
They were captured in the Emperor of China's palace during 

• Vero Shaw, " The Book of the Dog." 
t James Watson's " The Dog Book." 

169 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

the siege of Peking in 1867 or 1868, and were brought to 
England by the then Marquis of Wellesley, I think. Anyhow, 
they were given to a Mrs. St. John, who brought them 
several times to our house. Alike as two peas, they were 
solid apricot fawn, without a suspicion of white ; had lovely 
heads and expressions ; but, unlike their son, they were 
close to the ground, and a shade long in body." 

A later importation which is well known, is that of black 
pug-dogs brought in 1886 from the East by Lord and Lady 
Brassey in the Sunbeam. 

It is possible that the Chinese name for this breed is 
connected with the city of Lokiang, or Lochiang, about 
thirty miles north of Chengtu, the capital of Ssuchuan, which 
was famous for its dogs from the eighth to the eleventh 
centuries. Recent inquiries in Ssuchuan indicate that the 
name of the breed has been forgotten in its birthplace, and 
that even in this distant province the common name for the 
small short-nosed dogs is now " Ching-kou " or " Pekingese." 
One of the most important characteristics of the Chinese 
Lo-sze dog, is, in addition to universal shortness of coat, 
elasticity of skin existing in a far greater degree than with the 
" Pekingese." The point most sought after by Chinese 
breeders was the " Prince " mark, formed by three wrinkles 
on the forehead with a vertical bar in imitation of the Chinese 
character for " Prince." This same character is distinguished 
by the Chinese in the stripes on the forehead of the tiger, 
which, in consequence, is the object of superstitious venera- 
tion among the ignorant. The button, or white blaze, on 
the forehead was also encouraged in the Lo-sze dog, but was 
not of the same importance as the wrinkles. Other points — 
such as compactness of body, flatness of face, squareness 
of jaw and soundness of bone — are similar to those of 
" Pekingese," except as regards the ears, which were small 
170 



THE CHINESE PUG 

and likened to a dried half apricot, set with the outer face on 
the side of the head and pointing slightly backwards. The 
" Chiao-tzu," or horn-ear, is also admissible. The legs are 
but slightly bent at the elbow. The tail is docked by the 
Chinese, with a view to symmetrical form. The curly tail, 
however, is known to have existed (" sze kuo chu-erh "), and 
the double curl was also known. 

The most admired and rarest of the breed was the " loong 
chua lo-sze " (dragon-claw pug), which was short-coated 
except for the ears, the toes, behind the legs, and the chry- 
santhemum-flower tail, all of which were very well feathered. 
This appears to have been a distinct race which became 
extinct about fifty years ago. The pug-dog occurred in any 
colour, and was bred as small as possible 



171 



CHAPTER XI 
THE "JAPANESE" DOGS 

THERE appears no doubt that the " Japanese " race of 
small dogs was introduced from China. Its name in 
Japanese is " Chin," and the Japanese character 
representing this name is composed of roots denoting 
" China " and " dog." 

Considerable intercourse had grown up between the 
Eastern Chinese of Go and the early Japanese, at least as far 
back as the fifth century. The Japanese started making a 
serious study of Chinese institutions about a.d. 668. 

During the periods of Tien Wu Ti (a.d. 673-686) and 
Ch'ih T'ung Ti (a.d. 690-696) Korea and China constantly 
presented small pet dogs to Japan.* These dogs appear to 
have been sent as presents, first to Korea, and thence to 
Japan. 

Eastern records also show that in the fifth month of the 
year Tien Ping of Shen Wu Ti (a.d. 732), the Prince of Hsin 
Lo State (Korea was then composed of three states, of which 
this was the Eastern, adjacent to Japan) sent his envoy. Chin 
Chang Hsun, with a suite of forty attendants, to Japan for 
an audience. They took with them as tribute one parrot, 
one thrush, one Ssuchuan " pai " dog, one hunting dog, an 
ass, and two mules .f 

* Jih-pen Chi. Jih-pen Hou Chi. Hsii Jih-pen Hou Chi. Wen Te Shih Lu. 
San Tai Shih Lu. Liu Huo Shih. " The Dog," Tokyo 1915. 
•j- Hsu Jih-pen Chi. 

172 



THE " JAPANESE " DOGS 

It is said that about the year a.d. 794 " pai " dogs became 
somewhat dear in price in Japan, because all ladies liked to 
possess specimens of the breed,* 

" In the fourth month of the first year T'ien Ch'ang of 
Chun Ho Ti (Japanese Emperor a.d. 824), the state of Yueh 
Ch'ien (a Japanese State), sent four dogs as tribute, two of 
which were * Tso Tan Ta Wo ' and two of the * Wo Tzu ' 
breed. t Now the ' Wo Tzu ' is a Chinese ' pai ' dog." 

A brief reference to the history of European intercourse 
with Japan will be sufficient to indicate that in all probability 
specimens of the " Japanese " race of dogs reached Europe 
in the sixteenth century. The Portuguese captured Goa in 
1 5 10, and thence spread their trade throughout the East. 
Trade relations with Japan were started in 1549. The 
traders were much favoured, especially by the princes of the 
island of Kyushu, and, fortunate in the possession of Macao, 
rich in stocks of European and Indian goods, quickly de- 
veloped a very considerable trade. Kaempfer, the historian, 
who was physician to a Dutch embassy sent to the court of 
the Emperor of Japan in 1691, says " The [Portuguese] 
Merchants, in exchange for their European and Indian com- 
modities, as raw silk, fine stufl^s, druggs, wines, artificial 
curiosities, became possess'd of immense treasures, and the 
golden marrow of the country." In 1559 St. Francis 
Xavier, one of the original incorporators of the Society of 
Jesus, landed in Japan as a missionary. He was well received. 
A very large number of Japanese were converted, among 
them were the princes of Bungo, Arima, and Omura. In 
1582 these princes sent some of their nearest relations with 
letters and presents to pay homage to Pope Gregory XIII. 
Persecution began in 1586, but the Japanese, being anxious 
for commerce, spared the merchants. Kaempfer says : 

* " The Dog," Tokyo, April 1915. t Jih-pen Ji Shih. 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

" The merchants married the daughters of the richest in- 
habitants. The gold of the country was exchanged against 
European and Indian curiosities, medicines, stuffs, and other 
things of Uke nature. Upwards of 300 tuns of the precious 
metal were exported every year." 

The Dutch established a factory at Firando just previous 
to 1600. In 1637, in consequence of a Portuguese plot 
against the Emperor, the country was closed by Imperial 
decree to all Portuguese intercourse. All Japanese returning 
from abroad were put to death. No boat whatever, of any 
nature, was to leave Japan, and all Portuguese were banished 
to Macao. Meanwhile, the Dutch had been making every 
effort to forward their trade. " No trouble," says Kaempfer; 
" no expenses were spared to please the Emperor upon whom 
alone all the good or bad success of their trade depended. The 
most exquisite curiosities of nature and art were purchas'd 
and brought over for the annual presents. The oddest and 
scarcest animals in particular were brought up in the remotest 
kingdoms of Europe, Persia, and the Indies, to have where- 
withal to satisfy their demands, ridiculous and fanciful as 
they generally were, for animals so strange in their nature, 
colours and shape, as perhaps never existed in nature." * 
In 1 64 1 the Dutch were ordered to remove from Firando 
to Nagasaki, where their factorj'^ existed in Kaempfer's 
time. 

The period of British trade with Japan at the beginning of 
the seventeenth century was brief. The East India Company, 
successful in its competition with the Portuguese and Dutch 
in India, was making plans to gain a footing in the trade of 
the Far East. Its efforts to oust the Dutch from the Japanese 
trade were not successful. Will Adams, who, arriving about 
1600, was the first Englishman to reach Japan, rose to great 

* " Kaempfer's History of Japan," by J. G. Scheuzer, J. MacLehose. 



THE " JAPANESE " DOGS 

honour with the Daimio of Hirado. Captain Saris visited the 
court of the Daimio of Hirado in 1614. He does not remark 
upon the existence of a race of small dogs, though he does 
recommend the sending of " a mastife, a watter spaniell, and 
a fine grayhound " to the son of the Daimio. In the court 
minutes of the Company for 161 5 there occurs a passage : 
" Cloths to be provided for Surat, Persia, and Japan ; also 
sword-blades, knives, and fowling-pieces. Things considered 
fit to be sent as presents ; two mastiffs, little ' Island doggs,' 
greyhounds, etc." 

Richard Cocks, chief factor for Japan of the East India 
Company, kept a careful diary of events in the English 
factory at Firando from 161 5 down to the time of the ex- 
pulsion of the British in 1623. Some of his letters to his 
patron, dealing with the wonders of Japan, were submitted 
to King James I (1603-1625), who, incredulous of these 
marvels, declared the letters to contain " the loudest lies that 
he had ever heard." He gives detailed lists of the presents 
exchanged on many occasions between the Company and the 
Japanese rulers, as well as between the traders of the two 
nations. He complains of the enormous number of presents 
required to smooth the path of commerce. " I know not 
what else to write, but that my greatest sorrow is I live in a 
place which hitherto hath byn chargeable and not beneficiall 
to your worships, by reasons of the precentes contynewally 
given, it being the fation of the contrey, or else there is no 
staying for us yf we doe not as other strangers doe." He 
makes no mention, however, of the inclusion in such presents 
of any Japanese dogs except " a great black dogg " given him 
in exchange for goldfish, which were as yet a rarity in Japan. 
He does, however, mention, with evident apprehension, the 
accidental death of a dog which appears to have been pre- 
sented by the East India Company to Foyne Samme, late 

175 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

king of Firando, and which was kept, apparently at the 
king's request, in the English factory. 

April 4, 1617. — " Thomas the cook, lefte to attend on Mr. 
Totton, being a harebreand felloe, threw a kitchen knyfe at 
Balle, the kynges dogg, which we kept in the English howse, 
and stuck hym to the hart that he fell downe dead presently. 
He hath beaten many of our Japon servantes, and had lyke to 
have kild one of our neighbors servantes the other day. He 
ys not the man I took hym for, and wrot the Worll. Company 
in his behalf e more than he deserveth. Yf this had hapned 
in the tyme of Foyne Samme, who esteemed this dogg much, 
yt might have cost us all our lives. I sent our jurebasso to 
exskewse the matter to the kyng, who sent me word he 
esteemed that the English man did it not of purpose, and 
therefore willed me not to punish hym, for the deede being 
donne could not be undon, etc." * 

Special efforts were made by the Company to open up trade 
with China. Writing in 1627 ^^om Batavia, the Company's 
factors remark : " The third part of the East India's trade, 
Japan and China, is more than all the rest, and seemeth 
offered only to the English. These mighty monarchies 
abound with riches, are civilized peaceably to respond with 
all. Their clothing is silk, passable in summer, but in 
winter they are forced to bombast or wear ten coats one over 
the other." Considerations concerning the trade to China 
were to be " our next step." The factors then recommended 
the Court of Directors " to provide European toys for presents 
to these princes to procure rarities that others have not, to 
impress conceit of greatness in the vulgar ; a wild mastiff 
dog, because not common, has his attendants and is fanned 
from flies with as much observance as a principal personage." 
The factors complain that many of the dogs shipped to the 

* " Diary of Richard Cocks," vol. i, p. 247, Hakluyt Society. 
176 



THE " JAPANESE " DOGS 

East by the Company " grow faint and die for want of fresh 
water and too much salt meat aboard, fresh oaten meal or 
ground barley is the only food for dogs, and a chain and 
comely collar to grace them ought ever to be remembered. 
A Turkey cock and hen given by Capt. Moreton were so 
much admired that a * sleight ' Chinaman to make a friend 
by presenting them, would willingly buy the like at lOO ryalls 
of eight." * 

Sir Rutherford Alcock's opinion that the " Merry 
Monarch " was indebted to his marriage with a Portuguese 
princess (and thence possibly to Japan) for the race of 
spaniels called after him would appear to have consider- 
able justification, for it appears not unlikely that even if the 
Japanese races of small dogs were not introduced indirectly 
through Portugal or Holland by the traders of those two 
countries before the arrival of their British competitors, some 
specimens may have been introduced during the brief period 
in which British traders were in high favour with Japanese 
rulers at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Fennel 
in 1 841 says of the King Charles spaniel, " This beautiful 
breed received its name from having been the favourite 
of that ill-fated monarch Charles I, who rarely walked out 
without being attended by several of these spaniels. They 
were black and white, with curly hair, small rounded heads, 
short muzzles, long ears and webbed feet." t 

The sending of dogs as Imperial presents persisted in 
Japan up to at least the middle of the nineteenth century. 
" The Commodore, upon subsequent inquiry, learned that 
there are three articles which in Japan, as he understood, 
always form part of an Imperial present. These are rice, 
dried fish, and dogs. Some also said that charcoal was 

* " Calendar of State Papers. East Indies " 1615, p. 429 *, 1617, p. 374. 
f " Toy Dogs and their Ancestors," p. 37. 

M 177 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

always included. Why these should have been selected, and 
what they particularly symbolize, he did not learn. The 
charcoal was not omitted in the gifts on this occasion, and 
four small dogs of a rare breed were sent to the President as 
part of the Emperor's gift. We have observed also in the 
public prints that two were put on board Admiral Stirling's 
ship for Her Majesty of England. The fact that dogs are 
always part of a royal Japanese present suggested to the 
Commodore the thought that one species of spaniel now in 
England may be traced to a Japanese origin. In 1613, when 
Captain Saris returned from Japan to England, he carried to 
the King a letter from the Emperor, and presents in return 
for those which had been sent to him by His Majesty of 
England. Dogs probably formed part of the gifts, and thus 
may have been introduced into the kingdom the Japanese 
breed. At any rate there is a breed in England which is 
hard to distinguish from the Japanese dog. The species sent 
as a present by the Emperor is by no means common even in 
Japan. It is never seen running about the streets or following 
its master on his walks, and the Commodore understood that 
they were costly." * 

Records of the several Dutch embassies f to the Japanese 
Emperors, which took place during the seventeenth century, 
though enumerating the presents exchanged on each occasion, 
do not mention the giving of dogs. A record of cargo 
brought to England on certain of the ships of the East India 
Company during this period does not mention dogs, but 
includes merchandise to the value of some thousands of 
pounds under the general heading of " toys." 

The Bishop of Victoria, writing in 1861, remarks that like 

* " United States Japan Expedition (1852-3-4)," Captain J. C. Perry, vol. i, 
p. 369, published 1856. 
f " Ambassade vers I'Empereur du Japon," Henry Dnimmond, 1686. 

178 



THE " JAPANESE " DOGS 

everything rare and fetching a large sum of money, the 
Japanese lap-dog was said to come from Miaco. Full-grown 
specimens might sometimes be seen scarcely exceeding seven 
or eight inches in length. The diminutive size was secured 
by cross-breeding, and, according to some, by draughts 
of saki,* 

In recent times, arrival of the Japanese breed of dog, so far 
as is borne out by authentic records, antedates the Pekingese 
race as to importation into England by at least a decade. 
The record of shows demonstrates that nine " Japanese " 
were classed in a show held in the Holborn Horse Repository 
in i862.t 

Kaempfer fails to mention the existence of the breed in 
Japan, but remarks, " greyhounds and spaniels are wanting." 
It is interesting to note that although at a later period dogs 
were stated always to form part of an Imperial present, the 
Emperor lyeyasu's present to King James in 1 613 is recorded 
as having consisted of five pairs of folding-screens. 

Huish remarks J that the dogs usually seen in Japanese art 
are the Chin or lap-dog, which were introduced from Macao 
in the seventeenth century by the Portuguese. The authority 
for this statement is not given, and it would appear far more 
probable that the Japanese dog was introduced into Macao 
by the Portuguese, or perhaps from China, and thence found 
their way to Portugal and to the European Courts. Robert 
Fortune wrote in i860 : " The lap-dogs of the country are 
highly prized both by natives and foreigners. They are 
small — some of them not more than nine or ten inches in 
length. They are remarkable for snub-noses and sunken 
eyes, and are certainly more curious than beautiful. They 
are carefully bred ; they command high prices even amongst 

* " Ten Weeks in Japan," by the Bishop of Victoria. 

t " Modern Dogs," by Lee. J " Japan and its Art," Huish, p. 136. 

179 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

the Japanese, and are dwarfed, it is said, by the use of saki — 
a spirit to which their owners are particularly partial." * 

Idstone, writing in 1872, states that ." Originally the 
King Charles was a liver-and-white dog." He thought the 
breed originated in Japan, and said that the first imported 
Japanese were pale yellow and white. He also thinks that 
the Blenheim comes from Japan through Spain. 

Mrs. Hugh Fraser states that there are two kinds of lap- 
dog in Japan : one, the Chin dog above mentioned, which 
she refers to as a degenerate King Charles, and " a smooth, 
rather bald beast with spots, both kinds having prominent 
eyes." f 

* " Visits to Japan and China," by Robert Fortune, pp. 96-98. 
t " A Diplomatist's Wife in Japan," by Mrs. Hugh Fraser, p. 119. 



180 



CHAPTER XII 

THE CHINESE LION DOG 

IN studying the origin of the Chinese Jion-dog or shock- 
dog, an origin which appears to be closely connected 
with that of the Lhasa terrier, one or two points in the 
history of Tibet may be borne in mind. There is no 
recorded history of the country previous to the seventh 
century a.d., the people having been steeped in barbarism 
and devoid of any written language. The foundation of 
civilized monarchy was laid on the conversion, in a.d. 652, of 
Srong-tsan-gampo, who introduced Buddhism and the art of 
writing from India. He had founded Lhasa in a.d. 639. 
One of his wives was an Imperial daughter of China. 

In 663 the Chinese took Lhasa and burnt the royal palace. 
Another of the Tibetan kings, Khri-srong-Ide-tsan, born 
A.D. 730, is famous on account of his strenuous support of 
Buddhism. His mother was daughter of one of the Chinese 
Emperors. 

In 1253 Kublai Khan conquered all the east of Tibet. In 
1645 the Chinese again invaded Tibet and conquered the 
whole of the country, making the fifth of the Dalai Lamas, a 
title which first came into existence in 1576, supreme monarch 
of all Tibet. In 1653 he was confirmed in his authority by 
the Chinese, and paid a visit to the Emperor in Peking. The 
Chinese army again conquered the country in 1720, and 
established the present system of government. 

The Chinese lion-dog (** Shih-tzu kou ") is so called chiefly 

181 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

on account of the length and shagginess of its coat. The 
Chinese readily apply the name to any long-coated dog, 
whether native or foreign, large or small. Ramsay says that 
in Tibet these dogs are called "lags k'yi" (hand dogs), 
" because it is believed that, if a human being lays hands 
upon a young eagle when freshly hatched, the bird is trans- 
formed into a dog of the Chinese pug breed." * 

That the Tibetans should have selected their small lion 
dogs, and in accordance with the universal custom should have 
sent them as curiosities and presents to the Manchu scholar 
Emperors Ch'ien Lung, K'ang Hsi, and other sovereigns, 
as a flattering reminder of the Lamaist association of the 
Dynastic name with Manjusri, the god of learning, habitually 
accompanied by a small pet dog capable of being transformed 
into a mighty lion as his steed, seems perfectly natural. There 
is evidence that the compliment was acted on in the spirit in 
which it was given, for the palace eunuchs state that the 
Emperors were continually followed by their small dogs, and 
that their entrance to audiences was often announced by the 
barking of the accompanying dogs — a signal for all servants 
to hide themselves, or at least to avert their faces. 

It is not known when the Tibetan Lamas began to send 
to the Manchus small Tibetan " shock " or lion-dogs, the 
earliest English representation of which appears in Mr. 
Bryan Hodgson's " Drawings of Nepalese Animals." The 
custom possibly existed in the early period of the Manchu 
Dynasty, founded in 1583. It ceased in 1908, when the 
Dalai Lama visited the Empress Dowager and presented her 
with several specimens, which were seen by foreigners who 
describe them as having been very similar to the breed of 
lion-dogs then existing in Peking, and known by living 
testimony to have existed there for at least forty years 

* " Western Tibet," Lahore, 1890, pp. 33, 35. 
182 




CHINESE LION DOG, PEKING 




CHINESE LION DOG 
THE PROPERTY OF MISS BIECHAL 
PEKING 




LION DOG FROM THE PORTRAIT OF 
DOROTHY BRERETON, SECOND WIFE 
OF SIR PETER LEIGH OF LYME, 1615 
FROM "THE HOUSE OF LYME," BY 
LADY NEWTON 





LION DOG FROM AN IMPERIAL 
DOG BOOK 



THE LION DOG 
REES'S CYCLOPAEDIA, 182O 

To face p. 182 



THE CHINESE LION DOG 

previously. A similar breed exists in Shantung, but there 
are two varieties of the Shantung lion-dog, one of lap-dog 
size, evidently referred to by Dr. Lockhart in 1867 when he 
wrote, " From Shantung is brought a beautiful black, long- 
haired, long-backed, long-legged terrier, very much like a 
black Skye," * and the other shock-greyhound similar in all 
respects to the European greyhound, except for its shaggy 
coat. Laufert quotes from the " Annals of Shantung 
Province," " There are various kinds of dogs. There are the 
barking dogs with short muzzle and thin legs, excellent 
hunters. There are the edible dogs with fat body, which are 
served as food and reared in large numbers. There is a kind 
from the Western Foreign [country], low, small, clean and 
cunning, with which you can play ; it is called * ha-pa 
^*^g-' " t How the breed came to be produced or originated 
in Thibet it is impossible even to conjecture. As the 
Tibetans resembled the Chinese in counteracting the cold 
by increase in the amount of clothing worn and not by 
heating the living-rooms, the production of long-coated dogs 
was natural to the climate. Short-coated dogs would have 
had but small chance of survival. The association of Man- 
jusri Buddha with a small pet dog, which on occasions was 
apt to be changed into a lion, may have suggested to the 
devotees of Lamaism the idea of breeding miniature lions a^ 
something of a pious duty, a means of acquiring merit, as 
well as an indirect strengthening of their creed. The 
Lamaists themselves say that their Tibetan lion-dogs are 
bred to resemble lions, and they, like the Chinese, appear to 
be willing to call any shaggy coated dog a lion- dog. 
The first known use of the term " lion-dog " appears to 

* Proc. Zool. Soc, 1867. 

f " Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty," p. 267. 

X Book XXIV, section on Products, p. 6b. 

183 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

refer to a specimen which was probably considerably larger 
than the Tibetan breed, but which, from the proximity of 
Northern Kiangsu to Shantung, may have belonged to the 
race of " lion-dogs " of both large and small species, now 
found in the latter province. 

In the year a.d. 1131, under the rule of the Emperor Kan 
Tsung of the Southern Sung Dynasty, there lived near 
Hsuchow, in Kiangsu, a magistrate, Dei Yen Cheng, to 
whose judgment was submitted the following case, having 
points in common with that in which Richard Macaire was 
brought to justice by the dog of Aubry of Montdidier, and 
with Plutarch's story of Capparus, watchdog of the temple 
of i^sculapius at Athens. 

" In a lonely temple twenty li from the city dwelt a priest 
and his one servant. He had two pets : a cat, upon which 
he lavished much care, and a dog which was well-known on 
account of its being a " lion-dog." It happened one day 
that, during the absence of the servant, who had been sent 
to buy salt, the temple was entered by a robber, who 
murdered the priest and got away. He was silently followed 
by the dog to his retreat whence, after two days, he made 
for the city, still followed by the dog. Upon reaching a 
frequented place the dog attacked him and would not be 
beaten off. When at last he gained the city, the dog again 
attacked him, barking furiously. The dog was recognized as 
belonging to the priest, and the vehemence of its attacks was 
such that the murderer was questioned on the point, and 
failing to give a satisfactory explanation, was apprehended 
and, by the dog's guidance, taken to the temple. There the 
priest's body was found, guarded by the cat. The murderer 
was taken to the city, tried by the magistrate and executed 
on full confession of his guilt.* " 

* Yuan Chien Lei Han (quoting from the " Yi Chien Chih " ). 
184 



THE CHINESE LION DOG 

It is interesting to note that the West too had its " lion- 
dog." This breed of small pet dogs was mentioned by 
Buffon, and Linnaeus, writing about 1792, enumerates in his 
list of breeds of dogs the Cams Leoninus or " Lion Dog," said 
to have a long ruffle on the forepart of his body like a [male] 
lion, the hinder part growing short hair only. The breed 
existed in England as early as 161 5,* but certain characteristics 
were artificially imparted to it, for we read in the Proceedings 
of the Zoological Society, " Some of the figured and named 
varieties, as the Lion-Dog (" Chien-lion," Buffon) ; " Canis 
familiaris leoninus," Gmelin), are described from dogs that 
had been artificially prepared." f 

The Tibetan lion-dogs as existing at present in Peking 
are in some specimens as diminutive as the common 
" Pekingese," but are normally somewhat larger. Chinese 
breeders distinguish two varieties, the ordinary or " Nao-t'ou " 
(shock-headed), whose face is remarkable for the sticking out 
of its long coat from the lips and the bridge of the nose, 
giving an appearance similar to that of the griffon Bruxellois, 
and the " Tou-t'ou," very rare, whose forehead only is shaggy, 
the lower part of face being short-haired. The character 
" Nao " is translated " a large monkey, very nimble in climb- 
ing." X Laufer quotes from the description of the metropo- 
litan prefecture of Shunt'ien, " A small and alert class are the 

* " The House of Lyme," by the Lady Newton. There is, however, no known 
relation between the two breeds, 

t Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., Proc. Zool. Soc, 1868. 

X The term appHed to a dog is considered by the Chinese to be inappUcable to 
either a very small or a very large dog. The character consists of radicals, one of 
which means " dog " and the other " soft " or " fluffy," with obvious reference to 
the coat. Two characters occur in the " Chou Keng Lu " (Yuan Dynasty), and 
also in the " Pen Tsao Kang No " (Ming Dynasty). " The lion is tawny (lit. 
yellow-coloured), like the gold-coloured " nao dog.' " The same authority says 
(vol. H, part ii, p. 23), " there is an animal called the ' nao ' ; one half of the 
character means ' dog ' and the other half ' soft-coated.' . . . Long-coated dogs are 
called ' nao dogs.' " 

i8s 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

*Hu' (trans. Turkish) dogs which nowadays are called * ha 
pa' dogs. There is also the name 'pa'rh' dogs. The long- 
haired among them are designated ' monkey-lion dogs ' 
(* nao,' a long-haired yellow monkey). The people of the 
locality call it * shih nung kou.' " * 

It is to be noted that none but a literary or artistic Chinese 
would call the ordinary " Pekingese " or the short-coated 
pug by the name " lion-dog." This confusion of names is 
similar to that which exists in England in relation to the 
" Happa " dog — a name which to a Chinese is generic and 
simply indicates a lap-dog, which may be of pug, lion-dog, or 
" Pekingese " variety. Chinese breeders of these small dogs 
would no more confuse the names than a European breeder 
would confuse the English greyhound, the Italian variety, and 
the Borzoi. 

The Chinese lion (" Shih-tzu ") dogs are longer-nosed than 
the flat-faced " Pekingese." Perceval Landon remarks that 
in Tibet itself the Tibetan " terrier " is " a long-coated 
little fellow with a sharp nose, prick ears, and, as a rule, black 
from muzzle to tail, found but seldom in a pure state." f 
They may be of any colour, but must be strong in bone, 
short-legged and large-eyed. Like the Chinese Chow-dog, 
they are affectionate to their own masters, but shy and 
distrustful of strangers. In China, the breed is nowadays 
sometimes crossed with " Pekingese " with a view to intro- 
ducing length of coat into that breed. 

The Empress Dowager found great difficulty in rearing the 
Tibetan dogs, which are somewhat delicate, being very 
susceptible to pneumonia, and require more care than the 
race usually known as " Pekingese." 

Lion-dogs are figured in old Chinese pictures in con- 

* " Book L, p. 28a. 

f " Lhasa," Perceval Landon, p. 387. 

186 



THE CHINESE LION DOG 

ventional style. Chinese painters no doubt found it rather 
beyond their powers to reproduce the shaggy face and to 
give expression to a specimen which, in the best of the breed, 
is so compact and long-coated that it is sometimes difficult 
to distinguish head from tail. 



187 



CHAPTER XIII 
TOY DOGS IN CHINESE ART 

NO Chinese writer appears to have thought it worth 
while to record the precise points of the pet dog of 
his day. The most important evidence obtainable on 
the exact characteristics of the ancestors of the " Pekingese " 
breed has to be gleaned from such illustrations on paper, silk, 
porcelain, or lacquer as are obtainable, and from the very 
rare modelled or sculptured reproductions of true dogs. It 
is, however, easy to over-estimate the importance of these 
illustrations. As regards paintings on porcelain it must be 
remembered that the pictorial work was carried out near the 
potteries at Chin Te Chen in Kiangsi Province, 700 miles 
south of Peking. It is unlikely that the pottery artists them- 
selves ever saw the dogs they portrayed. They were working 
from either verbal descriptions or pictures. In addition to 
this there were difficulties of reproduction of colour and 
form on porcelains usually made and painted by hand for 
cheap wholesale consumption. 

Pictures upon silk or paper are commonly imitations of the 
work of old masters, sometimes honest, but very frequently 
made with fraudulent intentions. They have the charac- 
teristic, remarkable to the European mind, of portraying in 
a conventionally fixed manner. Modern Chinese painters are 
so much slaves to style that a picture of some particular tree 
or rock will often be nine-tenths the tree or rock of an old 
188 




CHIU SHIH TOONG CHU. PROBABLY TAO KUANG PERIOD 




FAN (hSING KE T'u) 




PORCELAIN 
SNUFF BOTTLE 





AMBER SNUFF BOTTLES WITH INTERIOR 
PAINTING 



PORCELAIN 

SNUFF BOTTLE 

TAO KUANG PERIOD 

To face p. i88 



TOY DOGS IN CHINESE ART 

master, and will be allowed only one-tenth of the charac- 
teristics of the actual subject. 

It must be mentioned that modern Chinese artists and 
picture dealers are the most inveterate imitators, counter- 
feiters and forgers in the world. The western collector 
usually falls an easy prey to their deceptions, which can only 
be guarded against by the closest of specialized study. Some 
years ago Frau Olga Wegener collected several pictures of 
the famous local breed of dogs in Peking. The Wegener 
collection was exhibited in Germany, and a small, but very 
inaccurate catalogue issued. The collection was acquired in 
part by the British Museum, and, in consequence of this, too 
much reliance has been placed upon the statements of the 
collector regarding the authorship and dates of the pictures. 
As regards other collections, it appears more than possible 
that the Sung Dynasty (thirteenth century) " Pomeranian 
Type of Dog," * by Mao I in the Fukuota Collection at 
Tokyo, is genuine. No authentic painting of Pekingese dogs 
older than the eighteenth century is known to exist outside 
the palace in Peking. The Wegener pictures, ascribed to 
Shen Chen Lin and said to date from 1700, are obvious 
counterfeits of recent date, for there has been only one well- 
known Chinese painter of this name, and his pupils now 
living in Peking testify to the fact that he died only thirteen 
years ago. Chinese pictorial art has been almost dead for 
two hundred years, and to this fact must be ascribed the 
paucity of Chinese animal paintings showing individuality 
and artistic merit. The Chinese pictures are, for the most 
part, not portraits of individuals, but they more nearly 
represent the artist's idea of type. 

The eunuchs of the palace endeavoured to obtain type 
pictures to which they might refer in the effort to improve 

* " Toy Dogs and their Ancestors," p. 284. 

189 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

their breeds, and consequently they caused scrolls portraying 
large numbers of dogs to be painted. Unfortunately, the 
painting talent upon which they could draw was limited, so 
that the results cannot compare with those which would be 
obtained if, for instance, British painters were commissioned 
to portray a similar number of specimens to be found in 
England at the present time. 

A well-known Chinese painter of dogs in Peking — he had 
been for years a pupil of Shen Chen Lin — ^was asked to make 
a likeness of water-colours of one of the local Pekingese 
specimens. The result was recognizable as referring to this 
dog on account of facial resemblance which, apart from 
somewhat conventional treatment as regards the cheeks, went 
far to constitute something of a portrait. The treatment of 
the body, however, was altogether conventional. The fringes 
of the dog's front, ears, legs, and tail, were almost entirely 
omitted, and the painter had obviously substituted the 
crystallized Chinese artistic convention, as it had been trans- 
mitted to him, in place of a true Hkeness of the general form. 

Miss Carl, who painted the late Empress Dowager with her 
two Pekingese dogs, remarks that the " Old Buddha " con- 
sidered it more remarkable that these animals had been 
painted so that they were recognizable than that a good 
likeness of herself had been made. It is probable, therefore, 
that only a small proportion of the reproductions of these 
dogs in Chinese art can be taken to be portraits or to have 
more than an approximate resemblance to definite originals. 

All Chinese are fond of sending small presents to their 
friends on auspicious occasions. The literary man loves to 
send a luck verse or picture having some happy allusion, 
usually more or less veiled in classical lore, as a charm or 
omen, to herald good fortune on a friend's birthday or on the 
New Year. Buddhism and superstition provide him with an 
190 




CHINESE BOWL, PEKING 




CHINESE TEACUP AND COVER, TAO KUANG PERIOD 




PORCELAIN FACE-POWDER BOX 
FROM PEKING 



To face p. igo 



TOY DOGS IN CHINESE ART 

ample fund of allegories and similes upon which he freely 
draws, and it is to this custom that we owe most reproductions 
of Pekingese dogs. When the Chinese scholar wished to fit 
some particular word into a well-turned pictorial phrase, he 
found keen delight in perversely substituting an object which, 
by the sound of its name, or by the Chinese character, would 
delicately suggest the wish of the sender without reducing it 
to the bluntness of bald prose. If his wish referred to a 
word sounding like " lion," the cultured men of Peking 
would be apt, especially if he were favouring one of the 
" fancy," to picture a member of the small breed of lion-like 
dogs which give his native city a certain degree of fame. 
The commonest form of token-presents in connexion with 
Pekingese porcelains was, at the beginning of the nineteenth 
century, that of the snuff-bottle. The illustrations always 
have a distinct meaning, and are usually the pictorial repre- 
sentation of some timely couplet or well-turned lucky phrase. 
The picture-phrases must be apt allusions and also have 
literary merit. Some of them can be construed as standing 
for two or three separate good wishes. They often introduce 
lucky numbers. A common snuff-bottle illustration, which 
has an European parallel, is a picture of three magpies — the 
Chinese name for magpie signifies joy-bird — on a tree with 
the sun shining overhead. The wish is " One day three joys " 
(" Yi Tien San Hsi "), such as official rank and a first-born 
son to a proud father on his own birthday. Unfortunately 
these snuff -bottles were carried in the pockets of their owners, 
so that authentic specimens have often lost the freshness of 
their illustrations through wear of the enamel. The phrases 
most frequently found illustrated are as follows : 

" Huan Tien Hsi Ti." 
(" Love Heaven Joy Earth.") 

191 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

This antithetical couplet is figured by butterflies flitting 
above children playing with cicadas or dogs. 

A picture of children flying a butterfly-kite is also used to 
symbolize joy below united with the much-loved " wind- 
harp " above. The wish of the sender is, " May the happiness 
of heaven and the joy of earth give you their united blessings." 

Another illustration is that of a " Pekingese " dog looking 
up at butterflies floating above him. The dog is here 
symbolical of joyful affection, and the butterfly of heavenly 
bliss. 

Another illustration commonly found is that of an old man 
with a dog pictured on one side of a snuff-bottle and a child^ 
playing with two Pekingese dogs and a butterfly on the 
other. The wish is, ** May old and young live together in 
happiness." 

It will be recalled that, according to Chinese custom, 
probably a survival from tribal days, all the male line of a 
family inhabits one house or collection of houses so long as a 
parent or grand-parent of the family remains to link them 
with the past. On account of the survival of polygamy in 
China, and the slender years of the average Chinese bride- 
groom, this custom is productive of frequent trouble in even 
the best regulated of households, so that in the East a deli- 
cately expressed hope that old and young may live together 
in peace and happiness is even more often appropriately 
auspicious and more intensely a heartfelt wish than in the 
West, accustomed to the doctrines of monogamy and the 
V imit-home. 

Two other lucky couplets found on *' Pekingese " snuff- 
bottles throw a sidelight on this Chinese family custom. 

Chiu Shih Toong Chii. 
Nine generations together live. 
(" May nine generations live together in peace,") 
192 



TOY DOGS IN CHINESE ART 

History stated that the Sung Dynasty was able to boast the 
remarkable circumstance of nine generations in one family of 
the name of Chang living under the same roof in peace and 
quietness. This wish is often imparted to the recipient by 
means of a picture of chrysanthemums and " Pekingese " 
dogs or lions. There may be simply lions or dogs, nine in 
number, representing a pun on the word " generations," 
which in the vernacular has approximately the same tone. 
The Chinese for chrysanthemums in Peking vernacular is 
" Chiu-hua," literally " nine flowers," on account of their 
flowering in the ninth moon. 

Wu Shih Toong T'ang. 
(" May five generations live together in the same home,") 

The feat performed by the Chang family is considered, 
even among the peace-loving Chinese, to have been so 
extraordinary that in the present age of drooping fiUal piety 
a minor wish is sufficient to express the utmost good augury 
convey able in a polite hope. The wish is usually pictured by 
means of one big and four small lions. SnufF-bottles pictur- 
ing five " Pekingese " dogs and expressing the same wish 
are also found. 

In the Chow period, which dates from about looo B.C., 
the highest literary degrees (" Imperial Instructor ") were six 
in number and were divided into two classes, the chief of the 
first being the " T'ai Shih," and of the second the " Shao 
Shih." The meaning is " may you attain the higher grade 
of Imperial Instructor, or at least the lower." This picture 
is very frequently found on Chinese porcelain dating to the 
beginning of the nineteenth century, in which the phrase has 
become a little less apposite on account of a slight change in 
the chief literary titles. 

Other pictures allude simply to some historical incident or 

N 193 



DOGS OF CHINA AND JAPAN 

to a trite saying. That most frequently found is perhaps the 
following : 

This motif symbolizes the superiority of man's wit over 
brute force, and conveys an antithesis such as that found in 
the English proverb, " The pen is mightier than the sword." 

This is usually represented by a pair of " Pekingese " dogs 
playing together, and forms an appropriate present from a 
husband to a wife naturally fond of dogs. The idea expressed 
is " May we live together in united joy." 

The chief hobby of the Emperor Tao Kuang (i 821-1850) 
was the breeding of pigeons. The Empress had a favourite 
and very celebrated " Pekingese " dog which on account of 
its colour was named Hsing-erh (apricot) and had a white 
button upon its forehead. This picture is by far the most 
frequent in connexion with illustrations of " Pekingese " 
dogs, whether on paper, silk or porcelain. It was favoured 
by loyal Chinese of the Tao Kuang period as flattering the 
exemplary devotion shown by the Emperor to his wife. The 
breeding of pigeons is universal in China. The flying of 
them with whistles attached is almost as much a national 
pastime in China as the flying of kites. The picture has 
special appropriateness on account of its being an expression 
of the other lucky phrase : " Love in heaven : joy on earth." 
A wish for united blessedness also exists, for the first half 
of the Chinese character for the word " pigeon " introduces 
the connotation *' fit " or " appropriate " in the sense of 
" well-matched." 

Shortly before 1891 the Empress Dowager's chief eunuch, 
Yin Liu by name, lost his three favourite " Pekingese " dogs 
by a fire which destroyed the house in which they were kept. 
These dogs were named, Sung To (" pine cone "), a black 
and white dog ; Chu Yeh (" bamboo leaf "), a red and white 
or yellow and white dog; and Mei Hua (" plum flower"). 
194 




PORCELAIN SNUFF BOTTLE 

FROM PEKING 
SHIH-TZU KUN HSIU CHIU. 
LION ROLLS EMBROIDERED BALL 





CHINESE SNUFF BOTTLE (TAI 

SHIH, SHAOSHIH). TAOKUANG 

PERIOD 



CHINESE SNUFF BOTTLE 

(TAI SHIH, SHAG SHIH). 

TAO KUANG PERIOD 




CHINESE SNUFF BOTTLES (rECENT) 
SAN YU T'u (three FRIENDS PICTURE) 



To face p. 194 



TOY DOGS IN CHINESE ART 

In memory of these dogs he caused to be made circular 
porcelain snuff bottles of large size. Upon them is pictured 
in five-coloured enamel a representation of these three dogs, 
each with its name, together with a pine-tree, a plum-tree, 
and bamboo branches. These three trees are found on other 
snuff-bottles without dogs. 

Now Confucius said, " In winter the pine-tree does not 
shed its leaves." To Confucians the pine-tree is therefore 
symbolical of stability under adverse conditions. 

The plum-tree and the bamboo are considered symbolical 
of the same idea of fidelity under adversity to the Chinese, 
because it is in winter that the plum-tree flowers, while the 
leaves of the bamboo remain green throughout the cold 
season. This picture presented to two friends would bear 
the sender's wish : 

" Through fire, or the winter of adversity, may our friend- 
ship remain as full of life as the pine, the bamboo, and the 
plum-tree." 



*tf 



^P 



195 



%^ 



INDEX 



A-CHEE, ceremony of, 27 
Acheen, king of, 74, 75 
Adams, Will, 174, 175 
Aigun, dogs of, 149 and note 
Ainu, the, 24, 25, 71 
Ajmere, king of, dogs sent to, 81, 82 
Albrecht, Oscar, 10 note 
Alcock, Sir Rutherford, 177 
Alexandra Palace Dog Show, 1875, 85 
Algonquins, dog superstitions, 78 
Alpinus, C, varieties, 5, 6 
Alva, Duke d', 167 
Ama Inu, the, 117 

Amacia, Acterius, Bishop of, 144, 145 
Amoy, trade of, 139 
Anahita, 95 
An-hsi, lions from, 91 
An-hui, dogs of, 71 
Anne, Queen, presents of dogs, 47 
Anon, book of, representations of fal- 
conry, 64 
Anubis, 11, 102 
Ao, dog of Leu, 8, 9, 15, 76 
Aristotle cited, 144 
Arkwright, W., " The Pointer," 65 
Aryans, dog- veneration by the, 12, 13, 

31. 36 
Asoka, lion-worship under, 95, 96 
Assur-bani-pal, bas-reliefs of, 12 
Assyria, the lion in, 94 
Assyrian dogs, 12 ; dogs of Asshur- 

bani-pal, 77 ?iote 
Assyrian lions, 122 
Astronomy, Japanese, symbol of the 

lion, 117 
Atargatis, goddess, 113 
Athenodorus, cited, 144 
Avignon, dogs of, 49 

Bai dog, the, 130 note 
Barking deer, 80 

Bas-reliefs, rubbings taken from, 61, 
62 ; of the Han period, 72 



Batavia, 176 

Bell, " Travels in Asia," 141 note 

Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint, 38 

Beyamini, 79 . . 

Bicknell, Ethel E., 69 note 

Birch, Dr. S., quoted, 9 note 

Black dogs, markings, 163, 164 

Blenheim Spaniel, the, 156 ; the " spot," 

161, 162 ; points of distinction, 168 
Boar-hunting, 56, 57 
Bogaz-Keui, sculptures, 113 
Bologna, 146 

Bonvalot, G., " Across Tibet," 84 
" Book of Rites," reference to, 23, 

29, 30, 44, 51 
" Book of the Five Elements," 48 
Borzoi dog, the, 75 
Bours, Madame du, request for poodles, 

45 
Bower, " Across Tibet," 84 
Boxer rebellion of 1900, 153 
Boyle and Manning, " Tibet," 83 
Brassey, Lord and Lady, 170 
Breeding. See Dog-breeding 
Brinkley, Capt. F., " Japan and China," 

I, 2, 17, IIS 
Britain, dogs of, sent to Rome, 16 ; 

dog's flesh used by cave dwellers, 24 
British dogs, renown of, during the 

Stuart period, 44 
British Museum, MSS. representations 

of falconry, 64 ; the Wegener 

collection, 189 
Buddha, distinguished from the human 

race, 121 ; his thirty-two superior 

marks, 161, 162 
Buddhism, laws of, 27-29, 116, 117 ; 

animal superstitions, 38-40 ; intro- 
duced into China from India, 91, 

92, 95-97 ; introduced into Tibet, 

181 
Buddhist lion, the, 92, 95, 96, 98 ; 

depicted, 104, 107-111, 114 

197 



INDEX 



Budge, Wallis, " The Gods of the 

Egyptians," 94, 113 
Buffalo stories, 105-107 
Buffon, " Histoire Naturelle," 71, 150, 

185 
Bull, the Assyrian, 107 
Bull -baiting in England, 45, 46 
Burgess, " Buddhist Art in India," 

98, 121 
Burgundy, Duke of, 73 
Burial ceremonies, the dog in, 78, 79 
Bushell, " Chinese Art," 90, 128 
Byzantine Empire, China and the, 128, 

146 

C-SSAR, Augustus, and the ram, 31 
Cassar, Julius, on dogs, quoted, 15 
Caius, Dr., quoted, 69 note, 84, 145 
Camuses, 167 and note 
Canton, sale of dog flesh in, 26, 27 ; 

trade of, 139 
Carl, Miss, in Peking, 53, 152, 153, 190 
Cat-rearing in China, 135-137 
Cats, arrival in England, 2 ; legends 

concerning, 40, 41 ; of the Ming 

period, 51, 52 ; Persian, 141 ; 

imperial popularity, 147 
Cave-dwellers, 24, 25 
Ceylon, the Hon in, 96 
Chang Ch'ien, 91, 96 
Chang family of nine generations. 193 
Ch'ang Hsien, the God, 35 
Chavannes, 10 ; "La Sculpture en 

Pierre en Chine," 72 
Chen, City of, 14 
Ch'en, " Kwong Yun " cited, 17 
Chen Tsung, Emperor, 132 
Chengtu, 134, 170 
Chia Hsiang, 68 

Chiao Ch'eng Chi, bas-reliefs, 68 
Chiao dog, 8 
Chiao-tzu, horn-ear, 171 
Ch'ien Hsi-hn, General, vii 
" Ch'ien Lei Han," quoted, 17 
Ch'ien Lung, Emperor, 58, 140, 149, 

150 
Ch'ih Hu, dog, 126 

Chili, cats of, 141 

Chilin, 47 

Chin Chang Hsun, 172 

Chin dog, 24, 179, 180 

Chin Shih, Emperor, 15, 16 

198 



" Chin Ssu Ha-pah," 160, 161 
Chin Te Chen potteries, 188 
China, domestication of the dog in, 
4-7 ; foreign policy influenced by 
regard for dogs, 9, 10, 15 ; dog- 
flesh as food, 20-28 ; the dog in 
religious ceremonial, 32 ; dog 
superstitions, 32-36, 40, 41 ; dog- 
breeding in mediaeval times, 47-50 ; 
use of the dog in the chase, 51 ; 
Buddhism established in, 96, 97 ; 
hon-masques, 115, 116 ; division 
and reunion of the dynasties, 
124, 125 ; silk trade of, 128 ; 
East India Company's trade with, 
176 

Chinese Art, toy dogs in, 188-195 

Chinese dogs, possible wolf-origin, 6-8 ; 
the Heavenly dog, 32-36 ; the 
Imperial breed, 144 

Chinese lion, artistic conception, 107-11 1 

Chinese lion-dog, name appHed to any 
long-haired dog, 181, 182 ; com- 
pared with the " Pekingese," 186 

" Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty," 
Laufer, 4-6, 56-58, 61-66, 76, 77, 
79, 92, 95, 98, 117 note, 183 

Chinese sacrificial animals, 29 

" Ching-kou," 170 

Chou Hsin, Emperor, 10 

Chou Po-ch'i, " Diary," 76 

Chow, the, flesh used for food 26 ; 
origin of the name, 58 ; use in 
fowling, 69, 70 ; tongue, 157 

Christianity, belief regarding the dog, 

38 
Ch'ung Hua Tihi Ch'uan Chih, quoted, 

148 
Cibot, Pere, researches, 22, 23 
Clans, Chinese, particular colours in 

dogs for, 1 61 
Clay figures, use of, 78, 79 
Cleves Anne of, dogs, 45 
Click, Chinese origin, 169, 170 
Cocks, Richard, in Japan, 175, 176 
Colouring, the white spot, 161, 162 ; 

tiger-stripes, 164 
Colours, the Pekingese, 160, 161 
Condor, C. R., " The Rise of Man," 

87 note 
Confucius, sayings of, 14, 16, 168, 195 

a cat story, 136-137 



INDEX 



Conger, Mrs., dogs presented to, 153 

Constantinople, 128 ; capture by the 
Turks, 146 

Cooper, Mr., cited, 80 

Copper period, dog superstitions, 78 

Corea, hawking introduced from, 2 ; 
use of dog's flesh, 24 ; the tiger 
in, 90 ; the dog of, 117 ; home of 
the ethereal Hon, 119 ; dogs sent 
to Japan from, 172 

" Corean dogs," 118 

" Corean purify heart pill," 119 

Corpse-eating dogs, 87 

Coxinga, pirate, 166 

Crested Chinese dogs, 71 

Cross-breeding, 164, 165 

Cunningham, A., " Ladak," 77 note 

Cybele, 113 

Daimio of Hirado, 74, 175 

Dalziel, " British Dogs," 85 

Das, Sarat Chandra, dogs mentioned 
by, 85-89 

Daubenton, quoted, 150, 151 

Davies, " Guide to Heraldry," 108 note 

Dawkins, Prof. Boyd, " Cave Hunt- 
ing," I, 24 

Deccan, red dog of the, 6 

Deggi district, 81 

Dei Yen Cheng, 184 

Dingo, the Australian, 3 

" Docking " of dogs' tails, 151, 165 

Dog Shows, 51, 52, 179 

Dog, the, evolution from the wolf, 2,5; 
wolf -origin of certain Chinese dogs, 
6, 7 ; use of flesh in China, 20-28 ; 
rules for presentation of, from 
" Book of Rites," 29, 30 ; a 
sacrificial animal, 29, 32 note ; 
the Heavenly dogs, 33-35 ; the 
hedge-dog, 36 ; miniatures in 
temples, 37 ; superstitions regard- 
ing, 42, 43 ; punishment for killing, 
86 ; included in imperial presents, 
177-179 

Dog-books, imperial, 52, 152, 163 

Dog-breeding, political importance of, 
in mediaeval times, 47-49 ; methods 
of development, 53, 54 ; com- 
mercial, 54, 55 ; forbidden in pre- 
cincts of Imperial ancestral temple, 
138, 139 



Dog-markets in Peking, 153, 154 

Dog-markings, Chinese superstitions 
regarding, 47-49 

Dog-sacrifices, 29, 32 note, 78 

" Dog-whipper," office of, 49 

Dog- worship in Egypt, 11, 12, 117 

Dogs, Isle of, 45, 49 

Doolittle, Rev. Justus, " Social Life 
of the Chinese," 35 

" Dragon-Tiger Soup," 28 

Drummond, Henry, 178 

Dudley, Robert, Duke of Northumber- 
land, dogs of, 65 

Dunne, Capt., 152 

Dutch East India Company, 30, 139, 174 

Duzaka, the, 36 

Ears of the " Pekingese," 158 

East India Company, trade with Japan, 
46, 174-176, 178 ; export of dogs 
through, 74, 81-83 

Eckl, Herr B., " Sacristy," 112 

Eclipse, Chinese superstitions regard- 
ing, 32-34 

Egypt, dog-worship in, 11, 12 ; hair- 
less dogs of, 71 ; lion-worship in, 
94; mythology of, 112-117, 120; 
sun-worship, 120 

Elastic skin, 164 

Elgin, Lord, 30 

Elizabeth, Queen, presents of dogs by, 

45. 125 

Elliott, G. F. Scott, " Prehistoric Man 
and his Story," 3, 4, 78 

Embassies, Sham, 139, 140 

Empress Dowager, dog-breeding by, 
150-153. 157. 186 ; tail-docking, 
165 ; visit of the Dalai Lama, 
182, 183 ; dogs, 190 ; pigeons, 

194. 19s 
" Encyclopaedia Britannica," the, cited, 

12, 103 
England, breeds in, 51, 52 ; trade with 

China, 139 
Erh Lang, the God, legends of, 32 ; 

dog- worship in temple of, 35-37 
" Erh Ya " quoted, 7, 16, 64, 76 
Esquimaux, sledge dogs of the, 71 
Ethiopia, dog-worship in, 12 
Eunuchs, dog-breeding by, 164, 165 
Europe, dog-breeding in mediaeval times, 

46, 47 ; lion-dog of, 185, 186 

199 



INDEX 



Falconry, in Europe, 62 ; in China, 

62, 64, 68 ; in Japan, 64 
Faust, 40 
Fei Ti, 18, 19 

Feng Shui, practice of, 40, 47, 90, 162 
Fennel, on the King Charles Spaniel, 

cited, 177 
FenoUosa, " Epochs in Chinese and 

Japanese Art," 125 
Fernam Mendez Pinto, 20 
Fleming, Abraham, 69 note, 145 
Firando, English factory at, 174-176 
Fire worship, the lion associated with, 

120, 121 
Five elements, superstition of the, 42, 

43 
Fo, lion of, 115 
Foism, the lion in, 96, 100 
Folin. See Fu-lin 
Foochow, 35 
Foot-binding among Chinese women, 

137. 138 
Formosa, trade of, 139 
Fortune, Robert, " Kaempfer," 25, 26, 

30. 3i> 37. 38, 64, ii8, 173, 174; 

on lap-dogs, 179 ; " Visits to 

Japan and China," 180 
" Four eyes," epithet, 162, 163 
Fowling piece, use of the, 62, 68, 69 
Francis of France, 44 
Franciscans, the, 134 
Francolin, the, 68, 69 
Eraser, Mrs. Hugh, " A Diplomatist's 

Wife in Japan," 180 
Frederick II., 62 
Fu Lin or Fo Lin, dogs of, 117, 127-129, 

141. 143. 146 
Fukuota College Tokyo, 189 
Funeral ceremonies, Tibetan dogs in, 

87,88 
Fung Shen Bang, " Popular Book of 

Superstitions," 114 note 



G. palustris, 3 

Gabriel Hounds, the, 40 

Game Laws, modern, unknown in 

China, 59 
Gaudhara, Court of, 92 
Geikie, Prof., " Geology," 2 
Genghis Khan, 97 
George III., 58 

200 



Goa, capture of, 173 

Goldfish, Chinese breeding, 52 

Goshawk, use of the, 66, 68 

Gray, Dr. J. E., cited, 54, 185 

Gray, J. H., " China," 26, 27, 33, 34, 42 

Great Britain, trade with Japan, 174- 

176 
Greece, the lion in, 95 
Greek art in China, 97, 98, 112 
Greeks, dog- worship by the, 1 1 
Greenwich Palace, 45, 49 
Gregory XIII. , Pope, 173 
Greyhound, the, in China, 72-75 ; 

in Europe, 72 ; the small, 75 ; 

measurements of specimens, 75 
Greyhounds, depicted on the Han 

pottery, 56-58 ; export of English, 

73. 74 ; Irish, 82 
Griffis, " Corea : The Hermit Nation," 

24, 118 
Griffis, W. E., " The Jap Nation in 

Evolution," 71 note 
Groot, " Rehgious Systems in China," 

42 
" Grosier de la Chine," quoted, 23, 24, 

141 
Griinwedel, A., " Buddhistische Stu- 

dien," 108 tiote 
Gryphon, the Egyptian, no 
Guns used in hawking, 68 
Gwalior State, last lion killed in, 

91 note 

Hackney horses, 73 

" Hah-pah " dog, the, 149, 160, 161, 

183, 185, 186 
Hai-Bah (or Ai Bah) dog, meaning of 

the term, 138 note 
Hairless dogs, 71 
Hakluyt Society, " Travels of Peter 

Mundy," 46 note 
Han potteries, relief bands, from Laufer, 

4-6. 56-58, 61-66, 76, 77, 79, 92- 

95, 98, 117 note, 183 
Handcock, Percy S. P., cited, 12, 48 

note 
Hangchow, 132, 134 
Hares, taken with hawks, 66, 67 
Harrison, cited, 146 
Hastings, Warren, 98 
Hawking, introduced into Japan, 2 ; 

in China, 65-68 



INDEX 



Hawk-training, Chinese and Japanese 

methods, 62 
Hay, Lord John, 152 
Head, the, importance in breeding, 

^55' 156 ; *he term " apple- 
headed," 156 
Hearn, Lafcadio, 25 
Heavenly dog, the 33-37, 72, 117 
Heber, Bishop, 91 note 
Hedge-dog, the, 36 
Henrietta-Maria, dogs of, 47 
Henry VIII, presents of dogs, 44, 45 ; 

" Calendar of State Papers," 60 
Heraldry, the lion in, 103, 1 07-1 11 
Herodotus, cited, 11, 12 
Hertford, Lord, 65 
Hewitt, J. F., Journal, 32 note 
Hinduism, legend of Manu, 28, 29 ; 

legend of the Heavenly dog, 36, 37 
Hippocrates, cited, 23 
Ho Hsi Min, " Kuang Shih Lai Fu," 

130 
Hodgson, Mr. Bryan, " Drawings of 

Nepalese Animals," 83, 182 
Holborn Horse Repository, dog show 

1862, 179 
Holditch, Sir Thomas, " Tibet, the 

Mysterious," 39, 40, 81 note, 87, 

118 
Hozan, lion-worship at, 106 
Horse-sacrifice, 29 
Hosie, Sir Alex., cited, 55 
" Hou," mythical animal, 157 
" Hou Han Shu," quoted, 17 
How Tien Ch'uan, the, 34, 35 
" Hsi ch'ing ku chien," the, 4 
Hsi Tsoong, Emperor, 131 
Hsi Yang Mintzu, greyhound, 75 
Hsia-kwei, dogs of, 149 
Hsianfu, 128, 132, 147 
Hsiao T'ang Shan, bas-reliefs, 61, 62, 64 
Hsien Feng period, 151, 165 
Hsien, the, definition of term, 7 
Hsi-kou, the, 72 
Hsin Lo, dogs from, 131 
Hsiung nu, dogs of, 8 
Hsu Shen, " Shuo wen," 17 
Hu, dogs, 1 86 
Hu Kuo Ssu temple, 153 
Huang Ti, 4 

Huish, " Japan and its Art," 179 
Hung Wu, Emperor, 146 



Hunting, Chinese, with dogs, 8, 9, 15, 
50 ; description of an imperial hunt, 
93 ; under the Manchus, 148, 149 

Huo Bin, 96 

Hydrophobia, 88, 89 

Ibn Batuta, cited, 20 

Idstone, quoted, 180 

lennet, the Spanish, 64 

Imperial instructors, 193 

Incense-burners, lion-shaped, 121 

India, decline of Buddhism, 97 

India art, the lion of, 108 note 

Indo-Persians, 119 

Islam, exclusion of dogs, 11, 12, 125, 

128, 129 
Ismayloff, Embassy of, 141 note 
lyeyasu, Emperor, 179 

Japan, non-use of dog's flesh, 24, 25 ; 
street dogs of, 25, 26, 30, 31 ; 
British trade with, 46, 74, 174, 
175 ; lion masques, 115, 116 ; 
symbol of the lion in astronomy of, 
117; lion supports for imperial 
throne, 118 ; presents of dogs from 
China, 172 ; trade relations with 
Portugal, 173, 174 

Japanese dogs imported into England, 
179, 180 

Japanese toy dog, the, 146, 147 

Jalandhara, Council of, 96 

James I., ban on tobacco, 16 ; dogs of, 
46, 47 ; dogs sent to the East by, 
74. 75. 81, 82 ; on Japan, 175 

Jaschke, quoted, 7 

Java, dogs of, 3 

Jesse, " Anecdotes of Dogs," 166 

Jesuits, the, 139-141, 147 

Jew, the, prejudice against dogs, 11, 12 

" Jih Hsia Chiu Wen K'ao," 134 note, 
141 note 

Jingu, Empress, 118 

John, Mrs. St., 170 

Johnson, R. Campbell, " Semitic 
Magic," 95 

Johnston, the " .^lian," 129 

Johnston, on the Maltese dog, 145 

Joyce [Peru] " South American 
Archaeology," 9 note 

Judah, lion of, 120 

" Jui ying t'u," quoted, 8 

201 



INDEX 



Jung, the, 6 
Juvenal, 34 

Kaempfer, cited, 30, 31, 37, 38, 64, 118, 

173. 174. 179 

K'ai Fu, title, 18 

Kamakura, court, 17 

Kan Tsung, Emperor, 184 

Kang Hsi, Emperor, hunts of, 92-94 ; 
dictionary of, 130 ; pictures of, 
133, 134; embassies to, 140, 141 ; 
dogs of, 149, 151 

Kansu, the small greyhound, 75 

Kao Wei, Emperor, story of, 126, 127 

Kathiawar, lions of, 91 

Katmir the watchdog, 125 

Keller, C, 10 note 

" Keng-hsien," meaning of term, 23 

Khri-Srong-Ide-tsan of Tibet, 181 

" Kin Shih So," 68 

King Charles Spaniel, the, points, 156, 
168 ; possible Eastern origin, 177 

Kinsen, Emperor, veneration for the 
dog, 30, 31 

Kircher, Athanasius, cited, 140, 148 ; 
on Chinese foot-binding, 137, 138 

Klementz, 62, 63 

Knife-cut mouth, the, 155, 156 

Ko chih ching yuan, 14 note 

Koma Inu, 117 

Kou Tzu, Emperor, 127 

Kublai Khan, dogs of, 50, 51, 80, 93, 
144 ; Hons of, 92 ; Lamaism 
adopted by, 97 ; fall of, 135 ; con- 
quests, 181 

Kungpah T. King, Mr., vii. 

Kupang, chiefs of, 25 

Kyushu, island of, 173 

Lama, the Dalai, 118, 148 

Lama, the Grand, 97 ; the Teshoo, 83, 
99 note 

Lamaism, the lion in, 96, 97, 100, 103, 
106, 118, 119, 121, 122 ; teachings 
regarding the symbolism of the 
lion, 112, 113 ; under the Manchus, 
148, 149 

Landon, Perceval, Lhasa, 71, 186 

Lap-dog, cult of the, 52, 149 

Laufer, Bertold, " Chinese Pottery of 
the Han Dynasty," 4-6, 56-58, 
61-66, 76, 77, 79, 92-95, 98, 117 

202 



note, 183 ; on wolf -origin of some 
Chinese dogs, 6-8 ; on the ha-pa 
dog, 185, 186 

Lauriya pillar, the, 95, 96 

Layard, cited, 77 note 

Lee, " Modern Dogs," 179 

Legge, " Chinese Classics," 9, 10, 34 

Leo, Constellation of, not known to 
China, 90, 120 

Leo, the Isaurian, 128 

Leopard, the Chinese, 85 

Leu, tribe of, 8-10 ; dogs of, 15 

Lhasa, ceremony of the scapegoat, 39, 
40 ; founded, 181 

Lhasa terrier, the, 181 

Li Chih, poet, 133 

Lien, the, definition, 7 

Linchinchow, cats of, 137 

Lin-ching, 137 

Ling Ti, Emperor, 18, 124, 126 

Linnxus, list of dogs, 185 

Lion, the, dog-hons, 97, 98, loi, 146 ; 
guardians of tombs, 118 ; Chinese 
superstitions, 1 18-120 ; charac- 
teristics of Buddha possessed by 
121, 122 

Lion, the Buddhist, 92, 95, loi ; sym- 
boHsm of, 112-115 

Lion, the Chinese, not indigenous, 

90, 91 ; the Chinese artistic idea, 

91, 92, 97, 98 

Lion, the Heraldic, 103, 107-111, 

116, 117 
Lion, the Lamaist, description, 96, 97 ; 

characteristics, 121, 122 
Lion, the Spirit, 97, 98, loi 
Lion, the Tibetan, 99 ; Buddhist 

representations, 100, loi 
Lion-dog, breeding of the Tibetan, 53 ; 

first Chinese mention of, 144 ; 

first known use of term, 183, 184 ; 

the two varieties, 183-185 
Lion-masques, 115, 116 
Lion-pillars, 95 
Lions' milk, legend, 118, 119 
Lion-stories, Buddhist, loi 
Lion-worship, origin, 91, 94-96 ; 

stories, 106 
Li-poo Board, Pekin, 33 
Lisle, Lady, poodles, 45 
Liu Jou Yu, 135 
Lo Yang (Honanfu), 18 



INDEX 



Lo-chiang dog, the, 131-134, 146, 147 

168-171 
Lockhart, Dr. W., cited, 84, 147, 183 
Logon Gyalpo, the, 39 
Long-dog, the, 72 
Loong chua lo-sze dog, 171 
" Lo-sze," the term, 168, 169 
Lung Fu Ssu Temple, dog-market in, 

152-154 
Lyons, dog sale at, 146 
Lytton, Hon. Mrs. Neville, "Toy 

Dogs," 15, 129, 144-146, 168 

note, 177, 189 

Macao, 92, 173, 174, 179 
Macartney, Lord, in Peking, 142, 150 
Macgowan, Dr., on the Chinese cat, 

136. 137 
Mahomedanism prejudice against the 

dog, II, 12, 125, 128, 129 
Malta, 144 
Maltese type of dog, 125, 129, 143-146 ; 

Daubenton on, 150 
Man Chu Hsi Li, name applied to the 

Manchu emperors, 148 
Manchu emperors, love of the hunt, 

148, 149 ; wearing of pearls by, 

162 ; Tibetan presents of dogs to, 

182 
Manchuria, commercial dog-breeding, 

54.55 
Mang, the, 7 
Manila, 139 
Manjusri Buddha, the, 148, 149, 182, 

183 ; the harnessed lion of, 163 
Manning, 87, 88 
Mantua, Marquis of, 44, 46 
Manu, legend of, 28, 29 
Mao L, 189 
" Mao Shih Ming wu t'n Shuo," quoted, 

6,7 
Maori, mythology of, 120 
Marignolli, cited, 102 
Mark, St., lion of, 116, 117 
Marsden, " Travels of Marco Polo," 

41 note 
Marten, the, 144 
Massey, G., " Book of the Beginnings," 

117 note, 120 note 
Mastiffs, British, breeding of, 44-46 ; 

presents of, to the East, 81-83 ! 

compared with Mongolian, 85 



Mastiffs, Tibetan, 60, 61, 76, 77, 79-81, 

83 

Maunserore, Lake, 99 

Melita, dogs of, 144, 145 

Meng hai, 14 

Miaco, 179 

Mikii, C, 2, 3 

Milan, Duke of, 73, 74 

Ming Kung Shih, 136 

Ming period, cats of the, 51 ; dogs of 
the, 129, 13s, 147 ; foreign trade 
during, 139 

Ming Ti, Emperor, 96 

Minns, " Scythians and Greeks," 120 
note 

Min-tzu, 72 

Mithras, worship of, 102, 103 

Mongolia, eating of dogs' flesh in, 21, 
22 ; commercial dog breeding, 54, 
55 ; sledge dogs of, 70 ; wolf- 
hounds of, 75, 76 ; mastiffs, 81, 85 

" Mongrel cur," the, 168 

Montmorency, 45 

Moo-Tan, dog, 153 

Moreton, Capt., 177 

Mtesa, King of Uganda, 103 

Miiller, Max, " Laws of Manu," 28, 

29. 36, 37 
Musk deer, 80 
Mythology, Egyptian, connection of the 

Buddhist lion with, 112-117, 120 

Nagasaki, 174 

Nain Singh, cited, 39 

Nao dog, 185 note, 186 

Navarette, " An Account of the Emperor 

of China," 21 
Nepal dogs, 83 
Nestorians, the, 97, 134 
Newcastle dog show 1859, 51, 52 
Newton, Lady, " The House of Lyme," 

185 

Nieuhoff, John, 137 

" Nihonji," the, cited, 79 

" Nine Generations," the wish regard- 
ing, 192, 193 

Nose of the " Pekingese," 156, 157, 168 

Noses, artificial production, 53, 54 

Odoric, Friar, quoted, 50, 92 
Ogilby, John, " Embassy from the East 
India Company," 21, 137, 140 

203 



INDEX 



" Old Buddha," 53, 152 

Oppian, " Cynegetica," 51 

Ordeal, trial by, Chinese customs, 21, 22 

Pa-Erh dogs, 149 note, 150 

" Pai " dog, the, 17, 123, 130, 131, 143, 
147 ; popularity in a.d. 794, 173 

Pai Kuong-fa, Abbot, vii. 

Palestine, superstition in, 40, 41 

Pao Ch'eng, stories by, 104 

Parsee rites, the dog in, 12, 49 

Parti-colours, points of appreciation, 
161-164 

Partridges, netting of, 68 

Pearls, Chinese custom of wearing, 162 

Pease, Sir A., " The Book of the Lion," 
95. 122 

Pechili, cats of, 141 

" Peiching Kou," term, 142 

"Pei Wai Chai Shu Hua P'u," 134 
note 

Pei Wen Yun Fu, 17 

Peking, sale of dog-flesh in, 27 ; the 
Hatamen, 32 ; the temple of Erh 
Lang, 35-37 ; national museum, 
58 ; Lama temple, 100 ; the 
Kung Fu, 106 ; cats of, 141 ; 
capture by the Manchus, 147, 148 ; 
siege of, 170 ; visits of the Dalai 
Lama, 181, 182 

Peking Chien Men, the, 106 

Pekingese dog, the, breeding, 52 ; leg 
fringes, 122 ; historical references, 
123 ; evolution of the type, 142, 
143, 146 ; the black and white, 
147 ; introduction into England, 
152. 153 ; points of the, 155-158 ; 
body development, 158, 159 ', 
shedding of the coat, 160 ; colours, 
160-164; "spectacled," 162, 163 

" Pen Tsao Kang No," 147 note 

" Pen-Lo " dogs, 149 note 

Pepys on bull-baiting 46 

Perry, " Megalithic Culture of In- 
donesia," 24, 25 
Perry, Capt. J. C, " United States 

Japan Expedition," 178 
Persia, demand for British dogs, 82 ; 
lion worship in, 94, 95 ; dogs of, 
126 ; cats of, 141 
Peter the Great, embassy to China, 
140, 141 

204 



Pheasants, taking of, with the hawk, 

66, 68 ; Mongolian, 69 
Phoenix, 47 

Pi Hsiao Li, eunuch, 153 
P'i ngaii, the, 7 
Pigeon breeding, 47, 52, 194 
Pinkerton, " Voyages," 71 note, 141 

note 
Ping Yang, 126, 127 
Pobrang, 83 
Pointer, the British, 51 
Polo, Marco, cited, 41 note, 50, 51, 59, 

60, 63, 79, 80, 92, 134 ; description 

of an Imperial hunt, 93 
Polygamy, 192 
Pomeranian type, 144 
Pope, Alexander, " The Indian and his 

Dog," 38 
Porcelain, Tao Kung period, 159 ; 

paintings on, 188, 191 
Portugal, trade with China, 139 ; pugs 

from, 166, 167 ; trade with Japan, 

173. 174 

Portuguese, Hons possessed by the, 92 

Poutiatini, C, 3, 4 

Poutiatini, Prince, 3 

Pratt on the Tibetan mastiff, cited, 81 

" Prince " mark, 170 

Pug, the Chinese, 147 ; early intro- 
duction into Europe, 166, 167; 
possible origin in Szechuan, 170 

Pug, the English, Chinese origin, 133 ; 
or probable Dutch origin, 166, 169 

Pug type, the, 52 ; colouring, 164, 170 

Pug-nosed spaniel, the, 54 

Pugs, black, 170 

" Purchas his Pilgrimes," quoted, 20 

Pyn Cushos, the, 83 

Pythagoras, teachings, 12 

Quail, netting of, 66, 68 
Quangsi, dogs of, 26 
Quangtung, dogs of, 26 ; eating of 
dog-flesh in, 27, 28 

Ramsay, " Western Tibet," 81, 182 

Rameses II., 94 

Rees, " Cyclopaedia," 24 

Ren Tsung, Emperor, 133 

Rennie, Dr., "Peking and the Pekingese," 

.152, 153 
Rinjaitzay, 83 



INDEX 



Roch, St., dog of, 38 

Rockhill, " Life of Buddha," 81 and 
note 

Roe, Sir John, 82 

Rolleston, Prof., " Scientific Papers," i 

Romans, the, dog-worship, 11 ; dog- 
flesh eaten by, 23, 24 ; use of the 
dog in the chase, 51 

Romero, Julian, 167 

Russia, pugs from, 169 

Saddar, cited, 6 

Saki, use of, 179, i8o 

Salmon-fishing, use of the dog, 71 

Salvatico, Francisco, 73, 74 

Samye monastery, Tibet, 40 

San Kuo Tien Lueh, 126 

Saris, Captain, cited, 46, 47, 64, 74, 

175. 178 
Sash, the, customs regarding, 163 

Scent in dogs, development, 51, 58, 65 

Schrader, cited, 62 

Scott, Sir Walter, 40 

Scripture, references to the lion, 1 1 1 

Scythians, 119 

Shadza, dog, 153 

Shakespeare, non-mention of tobacco, 

16 ; quoted, 41 
" Shan hai king," quoted, 8 
Shang, Books of, cited, 9 
Shansi, province of, 16 ; dogs of, 123, 

168 
Shantung, dogs of, 14 ; dog-flesh from, 

27 ; lion figures, 104 ; lion-dog of, 

183, 184 
Shaw, v., " The Book of the Dog," 169 
Shen Chen Lin, paintings of, 189, 190 
Shen Heng Chi, dog of, 135 
Shensi, greyhound of, 75 ; lion-pillars 

of. 95 
Shi Chi, 14 note 

" Shih King," the, quoted, 7, 63 

" Shih," meaning of term, 103 

Shih-tsu-Pa-Erh dogs, 52, 149 note 

Shinra, king of, 118 

Shintoism, 117 ; the Hon in, 118 ; 

sun-worship, 120 note 

Shock dogs, 145, 150, 181, 182 

" Short " dogs, 143 

" Short-mouthed " dogs, 168 

Shot-gun, use, 58, 59 

" Shuah Shih-tzu," 116 



Shuowen, dogs of, 8 

" Shuo wen," the, quoted, 7 

Sieber, Max, 10 7iote 

Silk pictures, 188 

Silk trade, Chinese 124, 128 

Sinkiang trade route, 91 

"Siring," 8s 

Sirius, II, 12 

Sledge dogs, Chinese, 70, 71 

" Sleeve-dogs," 149 and KOie-152, 165 

Sluys, 73 

Smith, Vincent A., " Asoka," 95, 96 

SnufF-bottle, vogue of the, 151, 191-193, 

195 
Soopoon Choomboo, 99 
Sorreze, J., " Roman de Leonardo da 

Vinci," 137 
Southwark beer garden, 46 
Sowerby, " Journal," 6 
Spain, dogs from, 65 ; trade with 

China, 139 
Spaniel, development of the, 65 ; the 

modern Japanese, 147. See also 

King Charles Spaniel 
Sparrowhawks, 66, 67 
" Spectacles," breeding of, 162, 163 
Speke, " Travels to the Sources of the 

Nile," 103 
Spirit-lion, the, 97, 98 ; monuments, 

149 
Spiti, wolves of, 7 

Sporting dogs, ancient Chinese, 56-58 
" Square " dogs, 9, 143 
Srong-tsan-gampo of Tibet, 181 
Ssuchuan, dogs of, 130, 131, 133, 134, 

170 
" Ssu-ma-Ch'ien," 8, 10 
Stambul, 128 
Stirhng, Admiral, 178 
" Stop," the, first European reference 

to, 146 
Strabo, cited, 87 note 
Street-dogs of Japan, 25, 26, 30, 31 
Strutt, Joseph, " Sports and Pastimes 

of the People of England," 64 
Stunting of dogs, discouraged, 152 
Suinin, Emperor, 79 
Sunbeam, the, 170 
Sun-dog, the term, 120 note 
Sun-myths, 116, 117, 120 
Sun-worship, the lion associated with, 

119-121 

205 



INDEX 



Sung dynasty, dogs of the, 49, 132 
Sung Yun, pilgrim, 92 
Sweden, heraldic lions of, 116 
Sybarites, 144 

Tables, Chinese, height of, 130 

T'ai Tsung, Emperor, dog of, 128, 

132. 133. 153 

Takatoki, Emperor, 17 

Tang dynasty, imperial dogs, 49 ; toy 
dogs, 125, 1 29-1 3 1 ; historical 
references to pet dogs, 127, 128 

T'ang, Emperor, decrees of, 8, 9 

Tao Kuang, Emperor, pigeons of, 194 

Tao Kuang period, dogs of the, vii., 
52, 149 ; porcelains, 159 ; docking 
of tails, 165 

Tartar dogs, 70, 71 

Tartar invasion of China, 124, 125 

Tatsienlu, mastiffs of, 81 

Tengeranus, C, 3 

Teshu Lama, the, 83, 99 note 

Thomas, St., Story of, 102 

Thunberg, " Japon," 31 note 

Ti barbarians, dogs of the, 6, 8 

Tibet, wolves of, 7 ; founding of, 10 ; 
lama beliefs concerning dogs, 39, 
40, 53 ; sledge dogs, 71 ; lore of, 
98, 99 ; lion masques, 115, 116 ; 
conquest in 1645, 148 ; early 
history, 181 ; the lion-dog pre- 
sented to the Manchu Emperors, 
182 ; the modern Hon-dog, 185 

Tibetan lion, the, monuments, 112, 113 

Tibetan mastiff, the, 60, 61, 76, 77, 

79-83 
Tien-Kow, the heavenly dog, 33, 34 
Tientsin, hawking in, 66 
Tientsin Treaty, 30 
Tiger, kingship of the, 90 
Tiglath-Pileser, 94 ; menageries of, 9 
" Ting-Tzu," 162 
Ti-Yang, 28 

Tokugawa lyesasu, tomb of, 118 
Tomb-dogs, 76-79 
Tongue of the " Pekingese," 157 
Tower of London, seraglio in, 46 
Toy dogs in Chinese art, 188-195 
" Toys," Eastern trade in, 178 
Trees, symbolism in, 195 
Tremayne, " Ban of the Bori," 78 
Tribute, dogs as, 8, 9 

206 



Tsai-kou, the, 5 

" Tso Chuan," the, quoted, 6 

T'u Shu Chi Ch'eng, 14 note 

" Tung K'ao," quoted, 18 

T'ung T'ien Bai, 162 

Tungus, the, use of dogs' flesh, 22 

Turfan, 63 

Turkestan, falconry in, 62, 

Turks, dogs of the, 7, 8 ; presents of 

dogs accepted by the, 125, 126 
Turner, Capt. Sam, on Tibetan lore, 

98,99 
Tzu Hsi, See Empress Dowager 

UcHENG, lion-worship at, 106 
Unicorn, the, in 
Urbino, Duke of, 44 
Ussuri, 70 

Vambery, quoted, 7 

Venice, presents of dogs from, 125 

Victoria, Bishop of, " Ten Weeks in 
Japan," 178, 179 

Victoria, Queen, " Pekingese " pre- 
sented to, 152 

Vinci, Leonardo da, the Manna Lisa, 
137 

Waddell, L. a., " Lamaism," 97 

Wan Li, Emperor, 49, 138 

Wang Houchun, vii. 

Wang To, dog of, 131 

Water-dogs, penalties for killing, 13, 14 

Watson, James, " The Dog Book," 150, 

169 
Watts, Isaac, 45 note 
Wegener, Frau Olga, collection, 189 
WeUington, Duke of, 170 
Wen Shu, the Chinese, 148 
White, on the Chow, cited, 69, 70, 77 

note 
Wieger, Dr. L., " Buddhism," 39, 106 
William of Orange, the pug popular 

with, 166, 167 
Williams, Dr. Wells, cited, 27, 71 
WiUiams, Sir Roger, 167 
Willoughby pug, the, 169 
Wilson, " Antiquities of Afghanistan," 

88 
" Wo," dog, 130 
Wo Tzu breed, 173 



INDEX 



Wolf, the, the domestic dog evolved 
from, 3, 5 ; the Chinese grey, 6 ; 
origin of certain Chinese dogs, 6, 7 

Wolf-hound, the Chinese, 75, 76 

Woo King, 9 

Wu Ch'i-ts'un, Mr., vii. 

Wu Liang, has reliefs, 72, 73 

Wu Yeh, Prince, vii. 

Wynne, M. B., " History of the Mastiff," 
9 note, 61 

Xavier, St. Francis, 173 

Yak, 80 

Yang, 28 

Yang Ti, Emperor, 125, 127 

Yi Chou Shu, 11 

Yin Liu, eunuch, 194, 195 

Youatt, on noses, quoted, 168 

Ysbrants, Ides, " Three Years' Travel," 

21, 22 
Yii lin dogs, 79 



Yu Pi T'ung Ch'ien, cited, 19, 127 

" Yuan Chuan Lei Han," quoted, 8, 9, 

131 note, 132, 133 note 
Yuan dynasty, menageries of the, 134 ; 

dogs, 147 
Yuan Shih k'ai, President, vii. 
Yuan Wei Ch'ih, 130 
Yuen Ming Yuan palace, 152 
Yuen-chuang, 136 
Yule, " Cathay and the Way Thither," 

50. 92. 93> 128, 134, 140 
Yung Ho Kung Temple, 94 
Yung Kwei Fei, beauty of, 129, 130 
Yunnan Province, dogs of, 6, 77, 80, 

84 

Zapuntello, 129, 144 and note 

Zend Avesta, reference to the, 6, 12-14, 

31, 32, 36,49,86 
Zoological Society, hairless dogs 71 
Zosoastrians, punishments for dog- 
killing, 13, 14 



HUDSON AND KEARNS, LIMITED, 
HATFIELD STREET, LONDON, S.E.I 



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